Chinese education: Then and Now Essay

Education in China began with the Chinese classic texts, rather than organized religion. The early Chinese state depended upon literate, educated officials for operation of the empire, and an imperial examination system was established in the Han Dynasty (206 BC-220) for evaluating and selecting officials. This merit-based system gave rise to schools that taught the classics and continued in use for 2,000 years, until the end the Qing Dynasty, and was abolished in 1911 in favour of Western education methods (Global Oneness Commitment). New approaches to education were encouraged after 1977, after a long period of nothing being done with the growth of education and science. It was in 1985, that school reform was implemented. Schooling was for nine years, with academic achievement having priority over political consciousness. Education comes in two categories – general and specific. The former includes the regular college, junior college, vocations secondary school and middle school levels, and the latter includes elimination of illiteracy rural practical technology training, on-the-job training, education for single-discipline qualification certificates, education for vocational certificates and postgraduate continued education (Asian Info).

Mother Sauvage

Being a wife and a mother is a significant role of a woman that cannot be paid by anyone. It was a purpose and a journey that needs entire love, patience, and kindness. These women make sure that their family will not get hurt and will be able to be loved and nurtured by them. However, there are certain situations that will test their limitations and patience. Most of the women say, â€Å"You can hurt me many times, but not any of my family.† Therefore, no matter how soft and loving heart a mother has, she will remain tough and strong for her family especially when it came to the point of hurting them. The story is about the life of being a mother despite of all the pains and how she gave justice to family that was killed by the people who went to her house and lived like her sons. It was very hard for Mother Sauvage to compose herself so that the Prussians would not think that she was the mother of the man they killed. Mother Sauvage thought that the death of her husband made her numb but when she knew that her son was killed, the same old feeling of loneliness, pain, and sorrow went through her nerves again – flowing like running water in the river. Mother Sauvage learned to love the four Prussians who went to her house and stayed but when she knew that they were the one who killed her son, she doesn’t know what to so but to accept them to her house and not to show her real feelings of sadness and anger. Regardless of all her fears and envy towards her boarders because of what they have done to her son, she remained calm and aware of her plans for the justice of her son and husband’s death. Mother Sauvage was not an ordinary mother. This story was not just a story of motherhood but also a story of womanhood. Even if mother Sauvage was very numb with her husband and son’s death, she continued to make herself relieved and think of the family of those four Prussians died in her house. It was a tragic but a realistic story because I can say that it can happen to any mother who experienced this kind of pain and maybe, not only this kind of things will happen to the killers, but more brutal than that especially when they were in your house. Seeing and serving the people who killed your family will bring you a catastrophic feeling that will lead to brutal killings just to give justice to you and your son and husband. According to Tannenhauser, the work of mothers does not offer â€Å"promotions, raises or any other tangible and ego-gratifying perks available in other professions† (Tannenhauser, 1996, p. 119) This magnificent responsibility of mothers cannot be compared to any other professions because it is a lifetime profession that cannot be quitted by mothers when they were tired. Mother Sauvage was like that. Even if her son left him and joined the military, she remained hopeful that one day, her son will go back into her arms like a child who used to run to his mother when he is tired. However, though it did not happen, she made her own decision of making her son and husband at peace in their death by obliging herself to make their own justice even if it will put her into death. A mother will always a mother and a wife will always be a wife unless you take away her son and husband away from her. Being a wife and a mother is played by women who choose to love and nurture their family instead of nurturing their selves. This major responsibility will put women to the top of the mountain and live as a queen when they perform their tasks as best as they could. This is when the members of their family are respectful, loving, and generous people. Works Cited De Maupassant, Guy. The Complete Short Stories of Guy de Maupassant. New York: Collier,   Ã‚   1903 Tannenhauser, Carol. Motherhood stress. In K. S. Bahr, A. Hawkins, & S. Klein (Eds.),   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Readin

Written Training Module Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Written Training Module - Assignment Example After that it aims to provide them a small lecture through powerpoint on the importance of time and methods of time management. The students will then apply these concepts in their group activities, and will then be evaluated by the rest of the participants, thereby learning best time utilization practices. Students often complain of too many things demanding attention for their time, with very less time left to relax or rest. This translates into stress and reduced work performance in all areas of life, leading to an overall decrease in the quality of life. This then leads to students feeling bad about themselves, or inadequate to manage things in the appropriate manner. Time management and learning the importance of time are the key elements that distinguish the successful students from the less successful ones. The training aims to highlight some of the key areas in successful time management. Organizing things in life is not only a way to keep one’s room clean but also a need to keep the mind at rest. An organized system around a person allows for clarity of thought and action. It helps the person focus on one thing at a time, and in this way ensure that that particular area of life receives full focus. The topic was decided primarily due to a large proportion of students stating that they do not know how to balance the different elements of their life in an appropriate manner. For this reason, it was thought that a good way to teach time management skills would be to educate them in a non-traditional classroom format. For this reason, the use of powerpoint which would the primary source of instruction was complemented by other aids. The initial test would be a good starting point to gain student attention, and the initial and after the training evaluation of the test by the student himself would allow him to see how and

Using SAP in Electronic Government Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

Using SAP in Electronic Government - Essay Example The study finds that immediate concerns are technical in nature, including weakness in the IT infrastructure, lack of knowledge, inadequacy in security and privacy of information, and lack of training of personnel. In the longer term, socio-cultural factors and a governance system that allows for e-Democracy are salient factors. For now, SAP assistance and programs promise to contribute much towards the technical and structural foundation of a robust e-government system. The impetus to develop e-government capability is a primary concern of all nations, particularly the member states of the United Nations, which has made it a priority initiative. Saudi Arabia is expected to play a pivotal role in e-government establishment in the Middle East region, not in small part due to the UN assessment that it is one of the more advanced Arab nations in information and communications technology (ICT). The business sector has long forged ahead in ICT applications, and further development of the nation necessitates the adoption of ICT in making the government more responsive and interactive with the citizenry and business sector. The challenges that tend to impede e-government development must be first addressed in order for efforts to be successful. The main purpose of this research consists of three axes. First, the definition of SAP and its characteristics. Second, identify the E-Government and know its components. Moreover, identify the challenges that facing e-government. Finally, the role of SAP in reducing these challenges and the development of e-government shall be discussed. The Systems Application Products (SAP) portfolio is a modular system, meaning that the software is packaged separately according to its various functions. The modular feature of this system allows it a great amount of versatility, making it suitable for application in small and medium scale enterprises, large-scale business corporations, and even

Impact of Natural Disaster on obesity of the residents of New Orleans Essay

Impact of Natural Disaster on obesity of the residents of New Orleans - Essay Example However, the main focus of the paper shall be obesity in New Orelean, and the impact it is having on it's inhabitants, and lastly the conclusions and recommendations by our study shall be presented. But before discussing about Obesity in Nre Orleans, it is important to know what we mean by obesity. According to Graves, " obesity referes to having a body mass index (BMI) over 30. That ... would be like a 5-foot-8-inch person weighing 197 pounds. The National Institutes of Health defines morbid obesity as a BMI above 40." (Graves, bestofneworleans.com). It is a well known fact that New Orleans is the city that loves to eat. It's no wonder, that this passion is reflected on the appearance and health of dwellers. The estimated quantity of overweight people in the New Orleans is 60% percent. The officials say it is obesity that is the cause for most diseases the New Orleans dwellers suffer from. They also add that the obesity-related diseases account for more than half of Louisiana's health care budget. (Sell, bizneworleans.com) However, obesity has serious, long-term consequences. The incidence of type II diabetes has increased in U.S. children in parallel with the rising prevalence of obesity (Rocchini 854-855). Hypertension, hyper-cholesterolemia, heart disease, asthma, mental health concerns (e.g., depression and low self-esteem), and orthopedic disorders have all been linked to obesity (American Academy of Pediatrics 424-430). However, obesity is the single major health problem in the United States that is rapidly becoming worse (Sturm 2002). Nevertheless, the problem of Adult Obesity is related to children's food habits, the foundation of which lies in the understanding that a juvenile's physical and mental environment is a primary determinant of his or her health and well-being when they grow up(World Health Organization (WHO) 2003). The knowledge that complex interactions exist between the childhood obesity and adult obesity is not new. Indeed, one of Hippocrates' aphorisms was "for, in general, you will find the forms and dispositions of mankind to correspond with the nature of the country." (Sallis et al. 179-185) As the field of community health grows as a specialty, so does the body of research by leading scientists and clinicians who seek to further our understanding of the impact of environmental disasters on the physical growth on the residents, such as obesity. (MacIntyre et al. 213-243) In 2005 Men's Fitness ranked New Orleans the seventh fattest city in the country. In 2004 it was on the twenty second place. The quantity of obese people in New Orleans is growing rapidly with each passing year, and thus the quantity of those, who suffer from the obesity-related diseases, also increases. New Orleans dwellers become less active, and eat more. On the contrary, one of the reasons of this process is that the fast foods are gaining popularity in New Orleans, like in other American cities. The contemporary pace of life often

Economic Environment of China Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4250 words

Economic Environment of China - Essay Example This issue is one of the most sought after topics for the researchers because in the recent years a lot of flexibility has been allowed in the economic system of China. There are several sectors where the private players are being allowed to exist in the market. The stringent restrictions on the property rights of the country have also been relaxed. The paper also analyses the economic systems that the other developed and developing countries have adopted. The comparison of the economic systems provides an insight into the various pros and cons of the set ups that are existent across the world. The fundamental premise for the contention is that the economic structure and the systems of a particular economy are a major determinant of the growth and prosperity of the economy. The world has witnessed the set up of different kinds of economic systems over different eras. There are various countries that have adopted different theories and have tried to implement them into their economies . The economic set up that China, Russia or Poland have followed the socialist structure while that of the US or German Economy have adopted the capitalist set up. In this paper comparison of China has been done with the other countries that work on a different economic model. A variety of economic systems around the world can be observed. In the Capitalist economic system which is alternatively called the market economy, the forces of demand and supply are allowed to operate. The prices and quantities to be sold are determined in the free market and there is no restriction put by the government on the determination of the prices that are sold in the market. Thus the profit or surplus that is earned by the owners of the means of production remains on their hands and the employees or the workers are eligible for salaries or wages (Gardner 27). The economic structure of the United States is of the capitalist type because this ideology has been applied in the economic system of the Uni ted States. In an alternative system that is the Socialist structure of the economy, the entire ownership of the means of the production lies with the government of the country. In this kind of a socialist system the surplus that is derived out of the production of goods and services after the payment of the wages are equitably distributed among the people that constitute the residents of the entire nation. Even the disabled people who directly cannot contribute to the production get an equal share of the surplus as the wage earners are entitled to. The main proponents of the theory of socialism were Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. They believed in the theory of class struggle and the theory of surplus value. A third kind of economic system that has the quality of both the capitalist structure and the socialist structure is the mixed economy. In this kind of an economic structure, the public and the private sector institutions coexist (Conklin 37). The government of such mixed econo mies does not interfere into the activities of the private sector directly but they do have certain restrictions imposed on them in the form of legal and constitutional regulations. The economy of India is an example of mixed economy where there is the coexistence of the private and the government players in the markets. Literature review The

Two short stories Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Two short stories - Essay Example Hecker’s protagonist, Rosaura evokes empathy among readers. Certainly, the circumstances of her life and the situation around which the story revolves may be alien to the reader but by expressing Rosaura’s simplest dreams and pleasures, Hecker incites identification with her. The daughter of a maid who, despite her mother’s constant efforts to remind her of the limitations of her socio-economic status, looks upon those around her with simple innocence, Rosaura’s acceptance of others leads her to assume their reciprocal acceptance of her. From the outset of the party, however, not to mention the events which followed, it was evident that there was no such acceptance. The little girl with the bow, Luciana’s cousin, refuses to believe Rosaura’s claims of friendship with her cousin and throughout much of the party, she is treated as a helper, not s an invited guest. The fact that she does not see this bit, instead, takes pride in being treated th at way, believing it a testament to the closeness of her relationship with the family, Rosaura’s innocence evokes our empathy because, suddenly, her experiences become ours and her naivety or gullibility become ours. Readers do not just sympathize with Rosaura but they empathize with her, feel her excitement throughout the party and, eventually feel her hurt and humiliation. Ironically, even as readers empathize with Rosaura, they sympathize with the story’s supposed protagonist, Senora Inà ©s. Possibly, this is largely die to the fact that Senora Inà ©s meant no harm and indeed, definitely did not intend to hurt Rosaura. Certainly, she did not treat her as an invited guest and singled her out throughout much of the party but she did not do so out of malice but under her assumption that this was the norm – after all Rosaura was the maid’s daughter. At the end of the

Modern states in the Middle East are the product of colonial violence Essay

Modern states in the Middle East are the product of colonial violence. Discuss with reference to two countries in the region - Essay Example The earlier caliphate and later empires and sultanates were the political factors that unified Muslims before colonialism (Khadduri 1951, p. 11). Colonialism is to blame for the rise in the ‘nation-state’. This is majorly because the colonizers used arbitrary and ad hoc means to create nation-states that were only meant to serve some of their particular interests. Good examples to explain this concept are how Kuwait, Lebanon, Syria, Iraq and Jordan were created. Kuwait was created as a result of the interest that the British had in the oil that was present in the Persian Gulf. Lebanon, on the other hand, was carved out of Syria to create a state that was friendly to Arab Christians. In the case of Jordan, it was created as a present to King Abdullah for the assistance he offered to the British during the 1st World War (Khalil 1990, p. 54). The manner in which most of these territories were being re-carved led to increased tensions that were centered on the territorial, l inguistic and ethnic differences that existed among Muslims previously. With this in mind, it is correct to point out that modern states in the Middle East are a product of colonial violence. This paper will discuss this notion with a focus on how Iraq and Syria were created as a result of colonial violence. ... From that day, Iraq was referred to as the â€Å"State of Iraq†. The state was to begin operating like an independent state because it was forced to break away from the ties that it had with the rest of the Middle East. The British went ahead and brought King Faisal, who was a Hashemite, to be the ruler of the new established State of Iraq. The French, who were the colonial masters in Syria, had forced Faisal out of Syria (Omissi 1990, p. 2). The British went further and appointed elites from the Sunni Arab people to head major government authorities and ministries. In 1932, Iraq was granted independence by the British after long persuasions by King Faisal. The British, however, did not give up the military bases or the transit rights for their troops. King Faisal died a year later, in 1933, and was succeeded by King Ghazi. During King Ghazi’s time, military coups were the order of the day. He eventually died in 1939 and was succeeded by his underage son (Tripp 2002, p. 28). Syria, on the other hand, has a unique history because some of its sections between 1098 and 1189 AD were under the Germans, Italians, English and French. This was mostly during the crusades that characterized that period. Previously, the region that is today Syria was under army of the Arab Rashidun in 640 AD (Batatu 1999, p. 21). After the period of the crusades, Syria was taken over by the Ottoman Empire in 1516. The French came in later in 1920 and established an independent Kingdom known as the Kingdom of Syria. The Kingdom which did not last for long was under the leadership of Faisal 1 who belonged to the Hashemite family. The Battle of Maysalun is blamed for the short existence of the Kingdom of Syria which only lasted a

Stoke Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Stoke - Essay Example nt clinical condition which requires proper management and intervention as it is the third leading reason associated with deaths in the United Kingdom. It is also the most important cause of disability in the country. Stroke has been defined by the World Health Organization in the year 1978 as a pathological condition in which signs are observed with regard to alterations in the cerebral activities which persist for a period of more than 24 hours and can even result in the death of the patient. The condition results due to reasons associated with the blood flow and are related to the vascular flow to the brain only (Mc Govern et al 2003).   Stroke is mainly divided into two forms with one resulting as a result of an infarct and is hence referred to as an ischemic stroke and it may also occur due to haemorrhage and it is then known as hemorrhagic stroke. Ischemic stroke is the most common type of stroke that is prevalent with 85 percent of the cases presenting with this form of stroke. Ischemic stroke results due to the cardioembolic reasons which fibrillation of the atria or the formation of an embolus due to infective endocarditis. It can also result due to atheroembolic reasons which include carotid atheroma and occlusion of the cerebral artery. Diabetic vasculopathy as well as vasculitis is also associated with this condition. On the other hand hemorrhagic stroke may result due to aneurysm and hypertensive disease of the arteries. In at least 25 percent of the patients who report with stroke, atrial fibrillation is considered to be present which indicates the fact that the formation of the clot might have occurred i n the left atrium which then gets detached and obstructs the carotid arteries. In a patient with myocardial infarction, there is a tendency for the formation of clots which might also result in stroke. Atheromas are also associated with resultant stroke. Raised blood pressure, diabetes and high levels of cholesterol in the blood are associated with

Transformational leadership Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Transformational leadership - Assignment Example Transformational leadership can be defined as in two different contextual values; theoretical value and the application value. In the theoretical value, transformational leadership can be defined through a formal qualification and circumstances that surround the situation at hand. It his qualification there is a fanatic grounding in the subject matter in order to get an in-depth look at the potential effect and implications especial when it comes to matters of ethics and moral department. In the application model definition, the definition of the theory is done and based on the application of the leadership skill on a particular endeavor or task. Having to site the various ways that transformational leadership can be defined a basic description of it can be given as leadership with enhanced motivation and performance amongst the following of a leader that has been done through various mechanisms. The leadership involves the connection with the following, being role models, challengin g the following to develop creativity and inspiring the following in order for them to share in the dream of the leader. Literature review One of the many famous scholars who have defined transformational leadership is James Macgregor Burns. Burns described transformational leadership as not just a set of behavior and characters but he described it as a continuous process where the leader exhibit high level of integrity morality and motivation aspects in their leadership. In his description of transformational leadership burns described that transformational leaders offer directional purpose to their subjects that not only transcend in the short term achievements by to more long-term and intrinsic need for their subject. He also added that transformational leaders tend to raise the standards trough appealing to the higher level of ideas, morals, and values as compared to other forms of leadership This definition by Burns was highly influenced by Maslow’s theory of needs. It i s on this theory that it is noted that different human being has different ranges of need and different extents that the individual intends to fulfill them. This theory of needs also acknowledges that different individual’s at different level have different efficiency level and motivation at work. This highly affects the satisfaction of needs. Transformational leaders as per Burns fall in the higher levels of the theory of needs: self-esteem and self-actualization levels. Components of Transformational Leadership Transformational leadership has over the years evolved from components of other of preceding methods of leadership. Some of these theories include the behavior theories, charismatic theory situational theory, and transactional theory. These three theories form the four basic components of transformational leadership. The three components can be described as follows Charismatic influence This can be defined as the level or degree to which any particular leader exhibit ing transformational leadership behaves or carries himself or herself.

Organizational Change Essay Example for Free

Organizational Change Essay Given the complex nature and competitive environment under which modern organizations operate ,the way forward for organization is to adopt strategies ,methods and practices which enable them to be ahead of their competitors. Recently global ,political and economic events such as liberations of economics,arising cost of productions ,global economic downtown ,the many competing and substitute products in the market and the spill over effects of the terrorist attacks in America, have led many organization to retrench adopt stringent cost cutting measures and to think of appropriate measures of attracting the largest number of consumers and secure a leading market share in a given industry . To remain competitive, modern organization should aim at uniqueness and superiority in all spheres of their operations ;in technology ,work procedures ,good and services ,approaches to the various management function of planning ,organizing,staffing , directing and controlling . These changes are only possible through creative and innovative thinking . The survival and continued relevance of organizations in the market place therefore depends on the strategies and survival tactics evolved by these organizations to respond to changes in the operating environment. One of the greatest challenges facing organizations therefore is the management of change in a manner that encourages pro activity and ensures continued relevance . Organization change can be defined from various perspectives . One commonly used definition of change is alteration of existing activities ,change can also be defined as innovative; the basic sense of introducing something new in the organization. Organizational change in the sense of improvement therefore refers to activities aimed at strengthening organizational performance such as new technology, work policy ,procedure,product,work attitudes and structural design . Creativity is the process through which a change can be introduced in an organization. It refers to the generation of new ideas into a real product ,service or method of production . Organization change ,creativity and innovation through creative ideas most be capable of being implemented. A creative ideas work therefore be useless unless it is innovative . Organizational change may be necessitated by pressure from outside or within the organization Cole G. A. 1996), Management Theory and Practice says that external forces for change are those forces which operate from outside organization,These include ; forces of competition ,for example competitors changing their strategies and other methods of operations; economic forces such as poor economic performance may require new cost cutting measures; political and legal forces such as passage of new laws by the government . Economic liberalization policy which no longer affords protection to local firms may require them to adopt new methods in products strategies in order to remain in competitive in the face of the inflow of foreign goods. Technological forces,for example,new technology of a firm obsolete ;social cultural forces such as change as in societal norms,values and altitudes should be accompanied by corresponding changes in goods and services. For example, a changes in taste require that a company must change quality levels,feature of existing products and services or introduce a completely new product in the market;physical forces like change in weather and climatic patterns,for example,adverse weather effects may require a company to adjust its production program. This may be due to shortage of essential agricultural based raw materials. Other external forces for change may be;creditors changing their lending policies which would mean that companies must work harder than before;trade unions imposing new conditions on matters affecting employees;consumer protection organizations insisting on specific quality standards hence the need to be quality sensitive;consumer insisting on quality and efficient services other than low prices or fees charged. Internal forces for change include;existing procedures which have become irrelevant and the existing structures which are too rigid hence the need for flexible structures;centralized systems of authority which is no longer effective after major organizational growth and expansion ;negative working attitudes by workers which need to be changed through new policies,rules and procedures,existing technology which may be obsolete and the organization has to adopt the new technology for it to improve efficiency and the competitive edge against other competitors;existing products and services which are no longer competitive in the market;existing training program which have become irrelevant in light of changes in work methods and technology;existing compensation policy which is not motivational such as automatic salary increment not based on merit. Anew compensation method for example payment by results may be adopted or introduced in the organization n facing up these internal triggers for change,management have to plan how they will respond to them. Some potential changes will have been announced well before hand and in these cases planning is taken care of pro actively . Koontz and Weirich (1995)Management:A global perspective, defined a change agent as any person or a group of people who may identify and recommend the need for change in an organization . Examples include, a committee set by the management, a task force, board of directors,shareholders,managers or individual employees. An employee for example may identify a difficulty or a weakness in the existing work procedures and suggest change to the management. If the change is rather insignificant and may not affect the final results,an employee may just implement such a change without a further consultations. Organizational change may be introduced in a planned or in reactive manner. A planned change is introduced pro actively when the organization identifies the need based on the benefits believed to come from change without disrupting operational processes. All change will incur some direct costs,for example,equipment costs,relocation costs,recruitment costs and possible redundancy payments. There will be also indirect costs such as communicating the changes to employees ,providing appropriate training and temporarily redeploying key managers and staff on change projects. An organization should also consider what might be the costs of not introducing the proposed changes. The resources required are identified in advance,employees trained or prepared accordingly adequate measures put in place to deal with the effects of change such as resistance to change. A reactive change on the other hand is normally introduced in an abrupt manner through a piecemeal approaches. A company waits until the pressure for change becomes too much and simply reacts through measures which can lead to immediate solution of a problem. For example, when there is cut throat price competition , a company may wait until it finds it unavoidable to reduce its prices when it is not able to survive in the market by maintaining its prices. According to Lewin Schein model , a model propounded by Kurt Lewin and Edgar Sshein,German Management theorists ,change can be introduced in an organization through the following steps:unfreezing that is,identifying the need for change and making it clear to employees how the organization will benefit by changing the status quo;change the transition period in the change process when employees abandon the old practices and adopt the new practices or change from the old to new attitudes ;refreezing which are the measures taken by the management which would ensure that employees sustain or continue with the changed attitudes or behavior. Emotional support,encouragement or financial reward may be provided. Through positive reinforcements ,new practices become the accepted ways of doing things in an organization. One of the principal ways in which organization can bring about planned change is by means of organization development. Organization development is a strategy for improving organizational effectiveness by means of behavioral science approaches,involving application of diagnostic and problem solving skills by an external consultant in collaboration with the organizational management. Organization development is an organization wide process,it takes an essentially systems view of the organization;it utilizes the techniques and approaches of the behavioral sciences that is psychology and sociology;it also involves the intervention of an external third party in the shape of a change agent trained and experienced in behavioral science application in the work situation. Organization development is aimed at organization effectiveness that is,it is something more than management development ;it is concerned with changing structures and decision processes as it is with changing peoples behavior. Organization development is about change and this change can be painful especially when it involves peoples attitudes ,beliefs and self image. The organization development is utilized when the senior management of an organization come to recognize that the key components of the organization system are not working harmoniously together. There is no one best way of introducing and designing an organization development program in an organization. It first takes a preliminary stage whereby the senior management team discusses the scope and implications of an a organization development with the change agent. This includes discussion about the aims of a possible program and the means by which it might be achieved. It also includes a consideration of the possible implication for the organization arising from the implementation of a program;it then define the nature of the relation ship between the change agent and the organizations management that is,whether the change agent is to play the role of an expert , a catalyst for new ideas ,educator or some other agreed role. If the agreement is reached about the idea of commencing an organization development program then it goes to the next stage of analysis and diagnosis where the change agent usually takes the initiative by designing appropriate methods for obtaining relevant information for example,interviews and surveys and by proposing a strategy for putting these into operation with the full backing of the management team. The information obtained should clarify the problems facing the organization,and build up a picture of staff attitude and opinions as well as supplying some important suggestions as to how the problems would be solved. On the basis of information received,the management team and the change agent agree their diagnosis of the situation . The management team in close collaboration with the change agent agree on what are the aims and objectives of the program. These aims could be to improve profitability ,secure a share of new market ,improve staff motivation or other desired improve ment. To these ends,specific objectives would be useful,such as to achieve the restructuring of the company along matrix lines over a period of say , one and a half years and obtain the full commitment of all the management staff to an open and democratic style of leadership or to reduce substantially the number of customer complaints about after sale service. The organizations problems have been analyzed ,a diagnosis of the overall situation has been made and agreement has been reached about the aims and the objectives of the exercise,it then behooves a moment of planning the content and the sequence of activities designed to achieve the aims of the programs. Much of the tactics in the planning stage will be influenced by the change agent whose skills and expertise knowledge in behavioral matters will be brought to bear on the manner of introducing the various organizational development activities. These activities will be examined more closely in bits noting the progression. Once the plans have been put into action,it is very imperative that they should be monitored at frequent intervals by the management and the change agent. Difficulties and misconceptions are bound to occur and these must be noted as soon as possible and dealt with quickly. If a particular activity is having adverse results,it will have to be amended or even dropped from the programs. From time to time more substantial reviews of the progress towards the aims and objectives of the exercise will be required ,and this often leads to comparing the results against the benchmarks which are the objectives of the whole change process. In light of the major review it is possible that some important revisions of the aims may be important for which further series of plans will be necessary. The success of any organization development concerning change process in an organization depends largely on the part played by the change agent. The change agent is at the core center of the entire organizations development process. If the change agent is not able to build a firm relationship between himself and the management team concerned,or if he fails to establish his credibility with a range of other groups,his chances of obtaining a sense of commitment required in the whole process are so low. Conversely,if the gains trust and respect both as a person and as a skilled adviser, then he stands a better chance of achieving his own contribution to the aims and the objectives of the program. The roles of a change agent are a multiple ones. These roles range from the highly directive,leadership type of roles to a non-directive counseling role. In the first place,he prescribes what is best for his clients and on the other hand ,he will reflect issues and problems back to his clients without offering any judgment to himself. Qualities of intellect and personality are also important with the change agent in particular the ability to listen and to apply rational approaches to problems and situations;also a mature outlook in terms of awareness and acceptance of personal strengths and weakness. Abilities required are not only those associated with behavioral science knowledge but more general skills such as interviewing skills,presentation skills and the ability to establish and maintain comfortable relationship with a wide cross-section of people. This combination of attributes suggests that a change agent will not always be readily available. It takes a certain kind of character to be able to make the contribution to joint problem solving and decision making that is required in the organization development. The most significant benefits of an organization development program obviously depends on the needs of the organization at the commencement of the program. Organization development enables an organization to adapt to change in away that obtains the full commitment of the employees concerned that is,it instills a mind of change in the employees minds where they perceive themselves as apart of the whole process of change ;organization development can also lead to organization structures that will facilitate employee cooperation and the achievement of tasks in that it brings about the issue of critical thought and mind development whenever the employees swaps between the jobs and the ranks unlike when the the employees would on a p[articular job and role until the retirement hence change brings about new challenges to the employee which eventually turns around the status quo and implement the policies of an enterprise into improvement of services;it also release the ;latent energy and creativity in the organization by way of specialization;it provides opportunities for management development in the context of real organization problems and the way to solve them by involving all the parties concerned including employees in the decision making process;it may also stimulate more creative approaches to problem-solving throughout the entire organization. Finally,change increases the ability of the management groups to look as teams and this will eventually lead to the achievement of longterm goals of the company. Resistance to change has been associated with the change and accepted as a major element of any change process. No matter how change may benefit the organization and individual employees,there will always be a tendency to resist it. Stower J.  F (2000) Management,says that change may result from fear of the unknown ,for example,potential difficulties or uncertainties which may come along with a new method or a procedure;fear of losing power,prestige or status that is fear of perceived inferiority complex towards the subordinates;fear of losing job related opportunities such as promotion or lack of care growth;failure to understand why a change is being introduced due to poor communication;perpetual differences between individual employees ,managers or work groups;fear of losing a job or going for further training when computerization program is to be undertaken or a major change are to be introduced through business process re-engineering . The management should device ways of reducing some of the resistance to change in an organization such ways as;conduct an education and communicate effectively with employees on the need and benefits of change;involve employees in planning the change process ;negotiate with employees or departments which are likely to resist changes ;introduce change in piecemeal manner and provide emotional support including time off during the most difficult period of the change process;selectively use information which gives emphasis on positive aspects of change. Employees likely to resist change may also be co-opted or assigned new positions created during the change process. In order to create an environment in which people think creatively and develop suitable ideas for change ,the management of an organization should take the following measures;develop an acceptance for change,employees must think strategically and believe that change is inevitable for the organization survival;provide a clea r objectives and freedom to achieve them. Organization members who are given clear objectives would be stimulated to meet them . Their creativity will have a purpose and direction ;a conducive environment for creativity is enhanced if individual have the opportunities to interact with members of their own and other work groups. Such interaction encourages team spirit ,exchange of useful information,free flow of ideas and fresh perspective on problems,also make it clear in word and deeds that the management welcomes new ideas. Managers who closely supervise every action of subordinates encourage them to follow orders rather than to experiment with new ideas. Because of tough competition ,resource scarcity and high equipment costs,the only way to ensure survival in any industry is change through creativity and innovation. Any idea that leads to more efficient and effective operation should be explored and implemented,hence a new idea may be a boon in an organization.

Pure Church Essay Example for Free

Pure Church Essay The service is at Pure Church in Birmingham, AL. I am at the heart of the South, literal marching ground of the civil rights movements in the 1950s. 50 years ago, this place was the launching ground for the black civil rights movement. This is where a revolution rang out from, a revolution that has bore the America of the present day (Rose, 1998). The sitting arrangement is oval in line with the church’s seats design. The church is surrounded with television sets all over so as to allow the congregation gets full view of the sermons. Pictures of young people responding to the emotional charges of the priest flashes all more frequently and families across the ocean, all to Atlanta, Selma and Montgomery and Ohio all get the glimpse of the preacher and the entire proceedings of the sermon from their television sets. Throughout the history the African- American church has maintained a tenacious grip on the gospel outsourcing justice. The congregation here are so emotionally charged and any sign of lack of emotional charge in one individual makes that person the odd one out, and therefore I had to do it as Romans do it as I was on their territory just to fit in the system for I had not been naturally sucked in the system. The congregation is dominated by the young people, majority young women of middle age. Full of energy, this group can stand for long, dance and clap with the tune of the gospel songs booming from the speakers installed around the walls of the church. The preacher, a middle aged man with white attire, symbolizing the holiness of the place, arrives with touching and rendering tunes of the Don Moen’s popular song, ‘arise’. The preacher’s attire contradicts the general attire of the congregation, which seems to be more contemporary and have no clear cut significances of resemblance with each other. The preacher seems to understand his audience well and therefore considering his choice of the topic of the day, dating and Christianity. How well would the preacher show the concern of the modern youth? This is why the preacher would not be irrelevant enough to choose topics like slavery, which were very relevant 50 years ago. In those years, the gospel pierced the soul and when they were laced with social injustice of slavery and racism. But today in this church, full of post- slavery people congregation, gospel edges here is shaved, sanded and smoothened such that the gospel only tickles rather pierce. In between every comment, that is, approximately after every five minutes, the sermon is refreshed with gospel music from contemporary gospel singers like Kirk Franklin. After some time, the whole church is immersed with songs of praise. The choir on the stage, the dancers streaming in one by one with their dancing skills to prove their ability to make the word of God enjoyable rather than a boring affair. The preacher moves with the congregation in response to the rapturous songs coming from speakers. He moves around the church in order to make his work lively and keep everybody attentive. Every row is fitted with a microphone and in addition there is a wireless microphone that goes around just in case there existing one develops technical problems. The people are expected to ask questions and make contribution to the topic of the day. Some take that opportunity to give their testimony, and some confess. Then time comes when the congregation receives blessings one by one from the preacher. People queue and pass by preacher’s section one by one, with stewards directing people. The preacher touches the fore head of individuals with some cold- like ice to bless the individual members of the congregation. My turn comes and I do the necessary, for nobody is left out. For some visitors like me, they find it difficult to follow all these doctrines and their being new in the church could easily get noticed. When the blessing were complete, the church goes quiet and the preacher announces that it is time to reflect on our past mistakes and sins and ask for forgiveness. This takes five minutes and the during this period the church goes silent that the only sound heard is from a hissing sound friction of the wind and the roof the church. The second last phase of the service involves group discussions, where people form temporary groups to learn from each other’s personal experience. This is part of the interactive process of the service. This process takes approximately fifteen minutes. The people seem comfortable with this session unlike the guests like us. Before I noticed that the groups were random, I could not identify myself with a group, since I did not want to be noticed. The collection of the offerings from the congregation begins after the group discussions. This process goes faster since small bags are circulated around for people to deposit their offerings. This is done as the slow and soft music streams from the speakers. Finally the preacher calls for any visitors to rise and introduce themselves. About nine visitors stand up and do the introduction one by one, giving their personal experience with the church. With this the preacher ends service as the music continues. The service is well planned with a clearly laid down procedure and role of the preacher in guiding the congregation. The choir does their part as they keep the congregation on toes with their emotional songs. In contrast to the traditional churches, the program is completely redefined to suit the composition of the congregation. The format is laid such that the music forms major part of the service. This is meant to contain the completely volatile group of this congregation, the youth. Then youth have proved to want something different from their fathers and forefathers (Gladys, 1993), ranging from music to sermon methodology. This is why the contemporary music of Kirk Franklin took most part of the service. The church seems to respond to the well to the youth’s social needs unlike their fathers who had experienced racial discriminations and therefore used the church as a podium to fight social injustice. The choice of dressing code here is also contemporary. The youth are known to be opposed to uniformity of the anything as they chose to explore and anywhere that seems to preserve their identity is definitely the best option (John 2003). The building is symbolic such that the roof top is fitted with a big cross. It is also oval, such that the preacher moves around at the center of the congregation. However, in contrast to the traditional design of the church buildings, this church is fitted with television sets, an effort to reach a bigger audience who could not reach the church. It is also a form of advertising the church such that more converts could turn out. The church does not offer any special service like Sunday school. This is visibly because the composition of the congregation is middle aged groups who are basically not yet parents. Another area which is completely different with other traditional churches is the Holy Communion. Here the Holy Communion is not part of the service, and instead the preacher does only the ritual of blessing by cold water smeared on the forehead. This is in line with this church’s doctrine. Conclusion The modern church has gone under several evolutions with new church doctrine being introduced in place of the traditional ones (Job, 1999). However the changes that have occurred have been fused into the system. Despite all these changes, there are some doctrines which have been retained. The rituals of blessings using water dates back to the bible history where the Jewish used to be blessed with the churches (Thomas, 1995). The symbol of cross, signifying the cross used in the crucifixion of Jesus Christ, make the church complete with the tradition similar to all traditional churches like the roman catholic with all their churches having crosses. The preacher order general observation of silence just like it is observed in the Roman Catholic Church, meant for the congregation to ask for forgiveness in silence (Joe, 2001). It is therefore clear that even though things have changed significantly, the common doctrines of the churches are still observed. Thomas, J. 1995: The legacy of African- American Church, New York, Revolution Publishers Joe, A. 2001: What’s Impressive about Briarwood Presbyterian? California, Religion Development Printers Rose, L. 1998: The Primacy of Preaching- How can we do it differently? Denver,Holy Publishers. Job L. 1999: Six Goals for Every Preacher- Bettering your approach as a preacher, New York, Revolution Publishers John F. 2003: Contemporary Church Vs Traditional one, Atlanta, Biblical Printers Gladys P. 1993: Do you have a favorite Book of The Bible, Atlanta, Biblical Printers

Anti-cataract Activity of Abies Pindrow Luffa Cylindrica

Anti-cataract Activity of Abies Pindrow Luffa Cylindrica â€Å"Evaluation of in-vitro anti-cataract activity of Abies pindrow Luffa cylindrica†: A Comparative study Suchita Dubey, Sudipta Saha, Shubhini A Saraf* Abstract- Context- Cataract is the opacification of lenses resulting in blurring of vision.Oxidative stress is the major cause of many diseases including cataract. Objective- The study was designed to evaluate and compare the in-vitro anti-cataract activity of aqueous extracts of Abiespindrowleaves (APE) and Luffacylindrica fruits (LCE) against hydrogen peroxide induced cataractogenesis, using isolated goat lenses. Materials and Methods-Standardized extracts of APE and LCE were compared for their anti-cataract activity against marketed eye drops. Hydrogen peroxide (0.05M) was used to induce cataract in goat eye lenses. Photographic evaluation confirmed the clarity of lenses incubated in APE and LCE respectively. Result-.MeanGSH Value in normal lenses was found to be 2.9765 ±0.17 µg/mg of fresh weight of the lens.In the presence of APE and LCE respectively, a significant restoration of the levels of GSH as compared to the toxic control was observed. An increase in MDA level was found in the control opposed to the normal lenses (1.57 ±0.04ÃŽ ¼mol/g of fresh weight of lens; P Discussion -SOD, GSH, TPC and copper-induced lipoprotein diene formation was found to increase, whereas MDA levels significantly decreased, as the concentration of APE and LCE increased. Conclusion: The study demonstrated that monotherapy of APE and LCE respectively, has the potential to prevent cataract because of the strong antioxidant potential of each. Keywords- Antioxidant, Cataract, Hydrogen Peroxide, Abies pindrow, Luffa cylindrica Introduction- Oxidative stress has been the major cause of many diseases including cataract. The free radicals that are produced as the result of daily stress borne by the human body are scavenged by a range of antioxidant enzymes and small molecule antioxidants. Cataract is the opacification of lenses resulting in the blurring of vision. Since ancient times, India’s conventional medicinal knowledge has been extraordinarily useful in treating rarest of the rare diseases. The term cataract describes lenticular opacities that may be congenital or acquired. Systemic diseases (such as galactosemia, diabetes mellitus, Wilson disease atopic dermatitis), drugs (especially corticosteroids), radiation, trauma, and many intraocular disorders are associated with cataract. Traditional medicines have proved to be effective to an extent in curing cataract. Plants such as Embellica Officinalis (Amla) and those which are rich in gallic acid, digallic acid, ellagic acid, and tannins respectively serve as g ood anticataract options.[1] The development of the disease depends on many factors.The lens Na+- K+-ATPase activity plays an important role in maintaining lens transparency, and its impairment causes accumulation of Na+ and loss of K+ with hydration and swelling of the lens fibres leading to cataractogenesis[2] . In conjunction, aldose reductase is a lens enzyme probably involved in the development of cataract [3]. It acts on the sugars like glucose, galactose, and xylose and converts them into their respective alcohols. These alcohols, also known as polyols: accumulate within the lens thereby producing osmotic effects. Since polyols are not capable of either diffusing out easily nor are metabolizes rapidly, they may cause hyper tonicity responsible for the formation of cataract [4]. Oxidative mechanism plays an important role in biological phenomena including cataract formation. The formation of superoxide radicals in the aqueous humor and in lens and its derivatization to other potent oxidants may be responsible for initiating various toxic biochemical reactions leading to the formation of cataract. Catlin is the marketed drug with considerable anticataract activity hence was taken as standard and various parameters measured, including total proteins and malondialdehyde (MDA) in vitro on goat lenses. Materials and Methods- Plants- Standardized extracts of â€Å"Abies pindrow leaf† and â€Å"Luffa cylindrica fruit† were obtained from Navchetna Kendra, New Delhi (A registered manufacturer, exporter and supplier of herbal products in India) along with the certificate of analysis of both the extracts confirming that extract complies with all the morphological specification of colour, odour, taste along with LOD, Ash value and microbial load (Total Plate Count, yeast and mould and E.coli). Drug- Catlin eye drop available in the market were purchased from medical store in Lucknow, UP. Eye Balls-Goat eye balls were used in the present study. They were obtained from the slaughterhouse and immediately transferred to laboratory at 0-4 degree Celsius in physiological salt solution containing 1% solution of antibiotic to prevent microbial contamination. Preparation of Lens Culture- The lenses were removed by extracapsular extraction and incubated in artificial aqueous humor (NaCl 140 mM, KCl 5 mM, MgCl2 2 mM, NaHCO3 0.5 mM, NaH (PO4)2 0.5 mM, CaCl2 0.4 mM) at room temperature and pH 7.8 for 72 h. Penicillin 32 mg% and streptomycin 250 mg% were added to the culture media to prevent bacterial contamination [6]. H2O2 (0.05M) was used to induce cataract. Preparation of Lens Homogenate-After incubation, lenses were homogenized in 10 volumes of 0.1M potassium phosphate buffer, pH 7.0. The homogenate was centrifuged at 10,000 rpm for 1 hour and the supernatant was used for estimation of biochemical parameters. Drug Concentration and Groups- The standard drug Catlin was taken in the concentration of 1% v/v and the Goat’s eye lenses were incubated with Abies pindrow extract (APE) (5mg/ml, 10mg/ml, 15mg/ml 20mg/ml) andLuffa cylindrica extract (LCE) (5mg/ml, 10mg/ml, 15mg/ml, 20mg/ml, 25mg/ml 30mg/ml) concentrations as mono therapy. A total of 65 lenses were divided into 13 groups of n=5. Group 1- PSS + Ab 250 mg (1%) + lens Group 2- PSS + Ab 250 mg (1%) + H2O2(0.05 M) 0.5ml+ lens Group 3- PSS + Ab 250 mg (1%) + Catlin (KI-3.3%, NaCl-0.83%, CaCl2-1%w/v) 1ml Group 4- PSS + Ab 250 mg (1%) + APE (5%) Group 5-PSS + Ab 250 mg (1%) + APE (10%) Group 6-PSS + Ab 250 mg (1%) + APE (15%) Group 7-PSS + Ab 250 mg (1%) + APE (20%) Group 8-PSS + Ab 250 mg (1%) + LCE (5%) Group 9-PSS + Ab 250 mg (1%) + LCE (10%) Group 10-PSS + Ab 250 mg (1%) + LCE (15%) Group 11-PSS + Ab 250 mg (1%) + LCE (20%) Group 12-PSS + Ab 250 mg (1%) + LCE (25%) Group 13-PSS + Ab 250 mg (1%) + LCE (30%) Homogenate preparation- After incubation, lenses were homogenized in 10 volumes of 0.1M potassium phosphate buffer, pH 7.0. The homogenate was centrifuged at 10,000 rpm for 1 hour and the supernatant was used for estimation of biochemical parameters. Biochemical estimation- SOD and GSH levels were measured using Ellman’s method[6]. Protein estimation was done by Lowry’s method [7]. The degree of oxidative stress was assessed by measuring the MDA levels by using TCA-TBA-HCl reagent. [8] (Table-2,3). The mean GSH Value in normal lenses was found to be 2.9765 ±0.17  µg/mg of fresh weight of the lens (Fig-5) . A significant decrease was observed in presence of in GSH value in presence of hydrogen peroxide in control. In the presence of APE and LCE, there was a significant restoration of the levels of GSH as compared to the toxic control. A significant increase in MDA level was found in the control opposed to the normal lenses (1.57 ±0.04ÃŽ ¼mol/g of fresh weight of lens; P APE and LCE significantly protected the test group lenses from lipid peroxidation; Hydrogen peroxide treated lenses showed significantly low concentrations of proteins (total and water soluble proteins) in the lens homogenate (P SOD levels as compared to the toxic control were found to be significantly more in normal lens group (1.76 ±0.10unit/mg of protein) which was far less than that of the toxic group (0.23 ±0.01unit/mg of protein). APE and LCE were found to increase the level of SOD in presence of hydrogen peroxide as well (Fig-4). Result- Photographic evaluation confirmed the clearance of vision when the lenses were incubated in APE and LCE (Figure 6). Photographic Evaluation: Scale of opacity- Absence of opacitySlightly opaquePresence of diffuse opacityPresence of extensive thick opacityResults of biochemical parameters are reported as Mean ±SD. (Table-2,3). Comparisons were made on the basis of one-way ANOVA and Bonferroni test was performed between test samples and data was considered to be statistically significant when p Discussion-Cataract is mostly brought about by age. It is common to older people. Inflammatory reactions to the lens material may develop as a result of the exposure of intact lens cortex by rupture of the lens capsule. In cataractogenesis, the parameters commonly considered are malondialdehyde (MDA) and proteins (total proteins and water soluble proteins). Oxidative stress is the main marker of cataract and is responsible for its pathogenesis.The study demonstrated that AP and LC are effective against H2O2 induced cataractogenesis in goat eye lens, used as in-vitro model. Significant prevention of cataract was observed during the study. SOD, GSH, TPC and copper induced lipoprotein diene formation was found to increase proportionally with the concentration whereas MDA levels significantly decreased as the concentration increased and reached its saturation level at the concentration 20% and 30% respectively for AP and LC (Table 2, 3). The photographic evaluation based on the opacity scale (Table-1) showed that highest concentrations of both the plants i.e. AP (20%) LC (30%) maintained the vision for 39.5 42 hours respectively. It was also observed that the lens incubated in Hydrogen peroxide swelled imbibed more solution which can be a possible outcome of inflammation while the lenses incubated in plant groups were less swollen which further potentiates the anti-inflammatory activities of both the plants. In conclusion, the study demonstrated that monotherapy of AP and LC had potential to prevent cataract due to their strong antioxidant potential. However, AP in lower concentration was more effective in treating cataract than LC according to results of the photographic evaluation. There is no literature available for anticataract activity of AP and LC. This is the first study which reports that the monotherapy of both the plants can afford significant prevention of cataract. Further studies can be performed with different routes and doses to evaluate the anti-cataract effect of these two drugs as future scope of the work. Conclusion- The herbal extract of both the plants were found to significantly reduce the free radical generation in isolated goat lenses. The extracts can be further developed into a polyherbal formulation or characterisation and isolation of phenolics in the extract can prove to be a good herbal remedy for treatment and prevention of cataract because of potent antioxidant action of plant. Acknowledgement- Suchita Dubey is thankful to University Grant Commission for providing research grant during M.Pharm Project. References- Gupta SK, Kalaiselvan V, Srivastava S, Agrawal SS, Saxena R (2010): Evaluation of anticataract potential of Triphala in selenite-induced cataract: In vitro and in vivo studies. J Ayurveda Integr Med 1: 6 Unakar NJ, Tsui JY. (1983) Inhibition of galactose induced alteration in ocular lens with sorbinil. Exp Eye Res 36: 685-694. Guzmà ¡n à , Guerrero O R (2005) â€Å"Inhibition of aldose reductase by herbs extracts and natural substances and their role in prevention of cataracts† Rev cubana plant med 10 :3-4 Kinoshita JH, Merola LU, Dikmak E. (1962) The accumulation of dulcitol and water in rabbit lens incubated with galactose. Biochem BiophysActa; 62:176-178. Harding JJ, Rixon KC. Carbamylation of lens proteins: (1980) A possible factor in cataractogenesis in some tropical countries. Exp eye res; 31:567-571. Ellman GL. (1959) Tissue sulfhydryl groups. Arch Biochem Biophys. 82: 70-77. Lowry OH., Rosenberg NJ., Farr AL., Randall RJ (1951) Protein measurement with the Folin phenol reagent. J. Biochem. 193: 65. Bar-Or D., Rael LT., Lau EP., Rao NK., Thomas GW.,Winkler JV., Yukl RL., Kingston RG. and Curtis CG. (2001) An analog of the human albumin N-terminus (Asp-Ala-His-Lys) prevents formation of copper-induced reactive oxygen species. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 284 , 856-862

House of Sand and Fog Essays -- essays research papers

I read House of Sand and Fog by Andre Dubus III. This story is one of classic tragedy which also contains a nearly unbearable amount of suspense. It tells a story of the conflict between people of different races who have an inability to understand each other. They each want possession of a small house in the California hills but for very different reasons.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  On one side, there is Kathy Nicolo and Sheriff Lester Burdon who want the house from which Kathy was evicted. It previously belonged to Kathy’s father and she is reluctant to relinquish possession of it. Then there is the Behranis, a Persian family who was forced to flee to America in fear of their lives. They want the house because it symbolizes their rise from poverty (they had to leave everything behind and were quite poor when they arrived in the United States) back to affluence which, to this family, will help to restore their family’s dignity, lost when thrust into poverty. The story centers on gaining possession of the house. Unknowingly, all of these characters are doomed to tragedy by their inability to understand each other, hurtling down an explosive collision course.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The main characters in this story are Sheriff Lester Burdon, Kathy Nicolo, Massoud Amir Behrani, Mrs. Behrani, and their son, Esmail Behrani. Lester has a very soft spot in his heart for battered and abandoned women, an outlook that Burdon attributes to his father's having left his mothe...

Louisa May Alcott Bio :: essays research papers

Louisa May Alcott Biography Best remembered for her books about the March family, especially her children’s masterpiece, Little Women, Alcott also wrote sensational novels and thrillers for adults. She was a very creative, difficult, and willful girl who was both moody and loyal.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Born in Germantown, Pennsylvania on November 29, 1832, Louisa was the second daughter of Abby May and Amos Bronson Alcott. Being one of four sisters, who were Anna Bronson, Elizabeth Sewall, and Abba May, the Alcott sisters had a very happy childhood. The Alcotts went through a series of moves, weither they were from one house to another in the same town, while others were from town to town, this was only a beginning of what was to continue throughout Louisa’s life. Her father, Bronson, was a transcendentalist thinker and writer who refused to take work that was not related to education or philosophy, which had the family commuting due to where he would be employed, which he rarely had been. Rather than being a step up for the family, these changes were just a step down, for the family had to depend on the generosity of others. Living in Concord, Massachusetts with friends and neighbors, Louisa’s father committed his time to educating his four daughters being that he wa s unemployed. Bronson could not be relied upon to support the family, which led her to live a pretty fugal life for his inability to keep a steady job. The plainness of their clothes, food, and home never seemed to bother them, but the issue of money was a constant source of worry for Louisa. She saw it as her mission in life to support her family. In her early teens she began to work with her sister Anna as governesses to increase the small earnings of their father. Then by her early twenties, she was writing and getting paid for it. The death of her younger sister and marriage of her older were very traumatic experiences, and to fill the void left by their absence, and to seek some purpose in life and participate in the Civil War, Alcott became an army nurse in Washington, D.C. After six weeks she got typhoid fever, from which she never fully recovered and left her permanently weakened, a condition that got worse with age. After the war Alcott began Little Women in 1868, along wit h all the gothic thrillers, which brought in money for the family.

Essay --

ASTRACT:---The phenomenon of Clickjacking, one of the modern web based attacks which attracted the attention of web attackers as well as security researchers. Using this method, an attacker can spy a genuine user’s click and use it for malicious purposes. The Clickjacking attack allows to perform an action on victim site on visitor’s behalf. It takes the form of embedded code or a script that can execute without the user's knowledge, such as clicking on a button that appears to perform another function. In this context, we shall analyse the internals of a clickjacking attack and methods to defend against it while using web applications . I.INTRODUCTION Clickjacking (User Interface redress attack, UI redress attack, UI redressing) is a malicious technique of tricking a Web user into clicking on something different from what the user perceives they are clicking on, thus potentially revealing confidential information while clicking on seemingly innocuous web pages. It is a browser security issue that is a vulnerability across a variety of browsers and platforms. They get installed through various channels in the user’s operating system and listen to key board events of the users, thereby stealing sensitive information. For clickjacking the attackers use hidden frames called â€Å"Ifames†. This has become a new threat and it has more devastating effects than key logging. II. IFREMES AND CONTENT ISOLATION HTML allows nesting of web pages via the â€Å"Iframe† tag. Typically, Iframes are used by developers to embed third party content into a website. Let us consider a webpage (parent) belonging to the origin â€Å"http://A.com† embedding a page (child) belonging to another origin â€Å"http://B.com†. Since the origin of both the pages are different, Jav... ... on social networking sites like Facebook. These spams are found to be used for stealing sensitive information of the users. Hence from this we have learnt how attackers establish the clickjacking attacks. We have also seen the two significant techniques used by developers to migrate against clickjacking. We hope to have more advances in web security, which helps in securing web applications. REFERENCES [1]Clickjacking http://www.google.com/url?sa=D&q=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clickjacking&us =AFQjCNEnGh31gxFW2qfk31UbeF8vQxihIg [2]Hansen,Robert and Grossman,Jeremiah, â€Å"Clickjacking†;http://wwww.sectheory.com/clickjacking.htm [3]http://www.owasp.org/index.php/Clickjacking [4] http://www.google.com/Javascript.info †º Tutorial †º Frames and windows [5]https://www.google.co.in/search?q=images+clickjacking&safe

Culture and Ethnicity Essay

I would respond to the client’s requests by doing as she has asked. This is because her requests do not make her condition worse or delay its improvement. Intake of fluid actually increases clearance of the airway in her respiratory condition. Nursing care provided to her would be adapted to fit in with her culture as long as her requests are within reasonable limits and thy do not endanger her health. (Potter, Perry and Heath, 1995) Her requests are an indication of the health traditions of her heritage. They show what kind of treatment she expects and her beliefs about health care. Culture is a set of beliefs, traditions and believes that are unique to a group of people and usually they are handed down and hardly ever change with time. These beliefs affect every aspect of life from daily living o ceremonies and include health too (Potter et al, 1995). The requests of the Chinese woman represent the beliefs she has concerning treatment of her illness. Her requests are based on the Yin-Yang Chinese concept of balance. Chinese base their food on choices on the condition of an individual, age and also the general characteristics of the individual. Some conditions are designated Yin (cold) conditions and therefore require Yang foods (hot). In this case, her respiratory condition is one of them (a Yin condition) that require a Yang food, (the warm water). (Feng, 2002). In accordance with Chinese culture, cold drinks should be avoided as they add an extra burden to the digestive system; hence her requests for warm water. (www. dhansanjivani. org/) According to the Chinese, one should eat according to the nature of their conditions. The nature of the condition is determined by observation, according to her, (the Chinese woman) the condition she has is a Yin condition and she therefore needs to eat Yang foods. Milk and bread are neutral foods and the salad is a Yin food, the foods served to her are not relevant to her condition. The belief that the digestive system should not be overburdened, may also have led her to refusing the food. Most Chinese prefer foods that are easy to digest when they are ill such as soups and the lady may have considered the turkey a burden to her digestive system. (www. dhyansanjivani. org). REFERENCES Chinese Food Therapy, retrieved from www. dhansanjivani. org/chinese-food. asp Feng C (2002) Merging Chinese Traditional Medicine into the American Health System, Journal of Young Investigators vol. 6, Issues 5. Perry G A, Potter P. A and Health (1995) Potter and Perry’s Fundamentals in Nursing Theory and Practice, Elsevier Health Sciences. ISBN 072342005X

Understanding Of Cerebral Hemodynamics Health And Social Care Essay

For the supratentorial wit, average perfusion value, such(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) as mental declination endure, adroit rent volume and intend transportation dodge clip let been establi bring in utilizing the tacky criterion, 15O antielectron emanation imaging ( embrace ) 9-11 . With adherence to the found of tail distinguish, there has been genuinely sm al champion work in hardening uping normative electric current values. There be still primal surveies utilizing 15O PET that count ply values in the screw tick 12, 13 .15O PET is relatively unavail sufficient in well-nigh states receivable to the demand for an onsite cyclotron. Consequently, CT and MR perfusion retain hygienic the or so widely used methods for evaluation of ingenious perfusion in diligents masking with pass, tumor or devolution 14-17 . Standard CT & A MR perfusion techniques argon semi-quantitative, only, some(prenominal) surveies have comp ard them to PET, and drama out their dependability for assessment of the supratentorial mentality 18-21 .Normal declension flow values of the hind(prenominal) gemstone constructions utilizing CT or MR perfusion imaging have non been fit(p) nevertheless wherefore doing judgements of unnatural flow and hemodynamics hard at best.Lin et al investigated cross happy cerebellar diaschisis in lancinate shot patients in the cerebellum utilizing MR perfusion and concluded that this technique is a dependable, efficient and a to a greater accomplishment than(prenominal) accessible alternate to PET 22 . However they did non set up normative values.The intent of this hatful is to set up perfusion mention values in the crapper pit, utilizing a quantitative dynamic susceptibleness contrast ( DSC ) MRI perfusion s tramp, auxiliary to the perfusion values antecedently quantified with PET.Before showing our survey it is gritty to draftly reexamine the divers(prenominal) sui table topics concomitant to our survey. We result hence maintenance a boldness at the psyche its map and reign either house broth show so live with a slight scrutiny of the foreman(prenominal) pathogenesis imp dissembleing both, the supratentorial any(prenominal) turning fair as the infratentorial office of the nous. We go away so triumph a closer expression at these dickens different move by researching the political boss annuclearal characteristics, physiological maps and headway pathologies ( vascular and neoplastic ) . advertise, we lead poll the different head perfusion techniques available castigate away in respects to their advant times and disadvantages and eventu every last(predicate)y deduct the principle of our survey in macroscopic radiation of the in composition fork upn supra. save so, we altogetherow for come in the magnetic core of this work by sing the press and methods, showing our way out and discoursing our conclusion s.The instinctThe human mentality is the Centre of the human nervous corpse and is a passing complex harmonium. It onlyt end be sub divide into two separate, the supratentorial luck and the infratentorial slash, primed(p) below the tentorium cerebelli. The supratentorial berth contains the cerebrum consisting of the tel encephalon and the inter fore knock down. The telencephalon takes the mental sharp mind cover, subcortical clear affair, and the elemental ganglia. The study(ip) sections of the interbrain ar the thalamus and hypothalamus. The infratentorial embark on encloses the brainstem dwelling of the midbrain ( midbrain ) , Ponss, and medullae ob greatata and the cerebellum including the vermis and two side unyieldingsighted lobes ( Fig. 1 ) . These infinites ar filled with cerebro spinal anesthesia anesthesia anaesthesia anaesthesia anesthesia anaesthesia anaesthesia still ( CSF ) . 23 visit 1 The firebird Nervous Systembrain.gif stem Waxman SG clinical Neuroanatomy, 26e hypertext delegate conversations communications communications protocol //www.accessmedicine.com/content.aspx? incite=5273762.The encephalon is formed by eight co-ordinated castanetss constructing the cranial pit. These castanetss be the frontlet, occipital, sphenoid and ethmoid castanetss, and two from each ane of the parietal and impermanent castanetss. The cranial pit shadow be marooned into two fuckable split the interior surface and the floor, the latter embroils triad pit the front tooth, in- amongst and bathroom cranial pit. 24 The supratentorial dispense of the encephalon is the besieging of g cadence perceiver of highschooler-order position sing and memorising. It overly supervises the fundamental social scheme s actions and responses to intrinsic and extrinsic urges by analysing and reacting to the different teachings from the sensory and get tracts. The infratentorial grant of the encephalon is in ch arge of the involuntary actions, lordly critical maps such as external respiration and bosom round and different subjective maps. It in like manner takes attendance of the fundamental form expression s experience of equilibrium, position and consecutive transactions.The encephalon is capable to different sort of distempers including cerebrovascular, neoplastic, infective, and degenerative and injury. genetic in exclusivelyy coarsed infirmitys including Mul levelle Sclerosis, Parkinson, Huntington Chorea and an an antagonist(a)(prenominal)(prenominal)(a)s ar in addition usual, every check smash as psychiatric diseases such as depression, schizophrenic disorder and others. line forgetThe cerebrovascular corpse delivers energy substrates and O and removes metabolic by-products. The encephalon histories for merely 2 per centum of entire fundamental structure weight, exclusively consumes 20 per centum of the organic structure s entire O demand and 15 per ce ntum of entire cardiac end product. 25 The arteryl root for the encephalon enters the cranial pit by two braces of large vass the vertebral arterys, originating from the subclavian arterial blood vessels and the congenital carotid arterias, ramifying stumble the gross carotids ( Fig. 2 ) .The Vertebral arterial SystemIt supplies the brain-stem, cerebellum, occipital lobe, and separate of the thalamus. later go bying done the hiatuss magnum in the base of the skull, the two vertebral arterias form a individual vas, the basilar arteria ( BA ) . This vas experimental conditioninates as the left and right stooge understanding arterias ( PCA ) . The midget astute arterias, which branch off the basilar arteria, generate critical Centres in the brain-stem. 23 The CarotidsThey offer the brace of the cerebrum. The carotids form the circle of Willis. They atomic number 18 interconnected via the previous bright arterias and the preliminary conversation arteria. The y atomic number 18 in like manner connected to the PCAs of the vertebral system by two tail pass oning arterias ( PcA ) . 23 estimate 2 main arterial Brain furnishcirlce of Willis and brainstemarteries.gif ascendent Waxman SG clinical Neuroanatomy, 26e hypertext transmit protocol //www.accessmedicine.com/content.aspx? charge=5273762.PathogenesisThere argon several(prenominal) tacit in induces for the damage of the encephalon s expression map. In this plane section we will hold a customary overview of the cerebrovascular ( stoke, arteriovenous deformities, aneurisms ) and neoplastic pathogenesis of the encephalon.Cerebrovascular DiseasesThis low gear portion is touch oned with the vilify of encephalon slices due to the diaphragm or slowing of capable o jail carrellus flow. We will front slip-uple major military campaigns shot, arteriovenous deformities ( AVM ) and aneurysm. We intentionally excluded legion other upsets such as reversible ischaemia, hyperten sive brain disorder, or venous thrombosis as this would surmount the range of this survey.StrokeBy and large shot is a syndrome characterized by the sharp oncoming of a neurological shortfall that persists for at least(prenominal) 24 hours, reflects focal engagement of the rudimentary nervous system ( systema nervosum centrale ) , and is the meaning of a perturbation of the intellectual circulation ( exhalation of O and glucose substrates ) . 26 Basically, it refers to any disease procedure that disrupts blood flow to a focal part of the encephalon and that whitethorn be ischaemic or haemorrhagic in nature. The bulk ( 80 % ) argon ischaemic in nature with the balance caused by discharge wi slenderise the cranial pit. 26 In the belowmentioned weapon system we will define the ischaemic and haemorrhagic shots.Ischemic StrokeIschemic stroke can be sub carve up into triad major etiologiesThrombosis 26 It is the al roughly roughhewn and nowadayss as a get moment of convince of the vascular lms. As a effect, blood flow decelerates and the high viscousness consequences in platelet adhesion and finally in coagulum geological formation. Atherosclerosis, circumstancely the extensive extracranial arterias in the cervix ( internecine carotid arterias ) exactly as well as intracranial arterias ( in- amid intellectual arteria, BA ) , remains the redbird cause of focal intellectual ischaemia.The nigh of meaning chance factors for coronary thrombosis artery disease fetching to shot aresystolic or diastolic high blood pressureDiabetess mellitusElevated serum cholesterol and triglyceridesSmoking other causes of thrombotic shot let inInfectionsAutoimmune diseasesGenetically based diseasesThrombotic shots usually evolve slightly easy over several proceedingss or hours.Embolism 26 When vascular lms stuff is fragmented and released, normally from a proximal beginning, it drifts into a narrower distal vas and obstructs blood flow. Contrary to t he pathogenesis of thrombosis, the hinder vas is non ghoulishly attained. Cardiac beginnings of emboli accommodateValvular florasMural thrombi ( caused by atrial fibrillation, myocardial infarction, or dysrhythmias )Paradoxical emboli ( caused by an atrial or ventricular septate defect )Cardiac tumours ( myxomas )Rarer causes of embolic shot includeFat emboliParticulate emboli from endovenous drug injectionSeptic emboli even so the bulk of emboli enter the antecedent circulation alternatively than the stool circulation. 26 Most embolic shots characteristically descend all of a sudden, and the deficit reaches its extremum about at one time. discover 3 shows the almost of write sites of thrombotic and embolic gag rule. go steady 3 Sites of Thrombotic and Embolic blocks in the Cerebrovascular CirculationAtheroprdelection.gifBeginning Simon RP, Greenberg DA, Aminoff MJ clinical Neurology, 7e hypertext slay protocol //www.accessmedicine.com/content.aspx? aID=5150807.Hypop erfusion 26 It is typically caused by cardiac affliction and less common apparatus of ischaemic shot. Hypoperfusion leads to a more dot hurt form compared to thrombosis or intercalation and is typically rigid in drainage field of battle parts at the fringe of the intellectual vascular allow for districts.Clearly, most cerebrovascular disease can be attributed to coronary artery disease and chronic high blood pressure. Until ways are human cosmos to forestall or command them, vascular disease of the encephalon will go on to be a major cause of morbidity and mortality. 26 Hemorrhagic StrokeHemorrhagic shots are typically divided into two subtypesintra noetic haemorrhage 27 Intracerebral bleeding ( ICH ) is the most common witness, particularly intraparenchymal bleeding, shed blooding occurs straight into encephalon parenchyma from little arteriolas antecedently weakened by marvellous blood strength per unit area. Leading hazard factor areIncreasing ageHistory of sho tBut other factors are besides relevant, includingRace ( Asians and Blacks ) , tobacco plant maltreatmentAlcohol maltreatmentAmyloidosis do of decoagulantUse of clot bustersICHs in the main occur while the patient is awake. It normally registers as an disconnected oncoming of focal neurologic shortage, which worsens over the chase 30-90 min. Further the academic grad of consciousness diminishes and marks of increase ICP, such as stage business and oppress nowadays.Nontraumatic subarachnoid bleeding 25 Nontraumatic subarachnoid bleedings ( SAH ) are blood leaks from a intellectual vas into the subarachnoid infinite. SAHs consequence from berry aneurysm rupture, most normally comeing at arterial bifurcations, or rupture of an arteriovenous deformity.Arteriovenous DeformityAVMs consists of a sweep of dilated vass that form an unnatural communication between the arterial and venous systems without a capillary bed intervening. These developmental abnormalcies represent perse verance of an embryologic form of blood vass and non a tumor, but the constitutional vass whitethorn proliferate and enlarge with the transition of clip. 28, 29 accredited vascular deformities vary in surface from a little defect a few millimetres in diameter imposition in the cerebral mantle or white affair to a grand mass of Byzantine channels representing an atrioventricular shunt of sufficient magnitude to project cardiac end product. The tangled blood vass interposed between arterias and venas are abnormally thin and do non hold the construction of normal arterias or venas. 28, 29 AVMs occur in all parts of the cerebrum, brain-stem, and cerebellum ( and spinal stack ) , but the large 1s are more often found in the carmine portion of a intellectual cerebral hemisphere. Typically, intellectual arteriovenous deformities are supratentorial, normally fable in the district of the middle(a) intellectual arteria. Generally, shed blooding or ictuss are the antique manne rs of founding. 28, 29 AneurysmAneurysms, more on the button saccular or berry aneurisms take the signifier of little, thin-walled blisters stick outing from arterias of the circle of Willis or its major particles ( Fig. 4 ) . Approximately 85 % of aneurysms hook from the anterior circulation and 15 % from the tail end circulation. 29, 30 Generally, those that rupture normally have a diameter of 10 mm or more. Their rupture causes a implosion therapy of the subarachnoid infinite, doing SAH. Because the meningeal liners of the encephalon are sensitive, SAH normally consequences in a sudden, pixilated thunderclap concern or exposit as the surpass concern of my life . As a regulation, the aneurisms are located at vessel bifurcations and are by and large presumed to succeed from developmental defects in the media and elastica of the arterias. Showing neurologic symptoms whitethorn fertilize from diffuse concern to coma to sudden decease. 29, 30 excogitation 4 Site s of Aneurysms in the Cerebrovascular Circulationaneurysm.gifBeginning Ropper AH, Samuels MA Adams and Victor s Principles of Neurology, 9e hypertext slay protocol //www.accessmedicine.com/content.aspx? aID=3637579.Intracranial TumorsThe vastness of tumours of the central nervous system derives fromTheir ample assortmentNumerous neurologic symptoms ( caused by their size, location, and invasive qualities )The devastation and supplanting of windsThe come of intracranial force per unit areaTheir deadlinessThe histogenetic theory by Bailey and Cushing, rife in recent old ages, argues that most tumours break from neoplastic transmutation of dismount on with grownup cells ( particularly glia cells ) , called dedifferentiation. 31 During this procedure a normal astrocyte, oligodendrocyte, microgliocyte, or ependymocyte is transformed into a neoplastic cell and get downs position by blot, with every mitosis, anaplastic. The gull of malignance is relative to the uniform b ucolic of the initial cells. 29 many an(prenominal) factors solve a ferment in the biologic science of encephalon tumours. Several heighten determiners can be place whileCertain encephalon tumours ( indigenous or secondary ) are much more frequent than others and are prone to happen in peculiar age separates. For watch medulloblastomas, polar glioblastoma, optic boldness gliomas, and pinealomas occur hirerly onward the age of 20 old ages. On the other manus, meningiomas and glioblastoma are most frequent in patients above 60 old ages. As a regulation, secondary metastatic tumours are more common in grownups and primary encephalon tumours more common in kids. 29 GeneticssHeredity besides inscribes greatly in the generation of certain tumours, oddly retinoblastomas, neurilemoma, and hemangioblastomas. Neurofibromatosis and tuberous induration and the cerebellar hemangioblastoma of von Hippel-Lindau are the best illustrations of a familial determiner. 29 VirussHarm onizing to Levine the virus is believed to coerce the cell to divert from its normal activity in its replicative rhythm. 32 Such viruses are called transforming genes, as they are able to modify the cellular genome. Oncogenes fundamentally halt the cells self-destruction ( programmed cell death ) map and heighten the asocial proliferation of the cell, doing tumours ( e.g. AIDS ) .MetastasissCertain malignant neoplastic diseases ( chest, lung, melanoma, nephritic cell malignant neoplastic disease ) display a free fall to metastasise to nervous create from raw material. 29 Paraneoplasies common tumors produce particular autoantibodies with distant effects on the CNS. These distant effects are called paraneoplasias and most normally are the initial or even merely clinical manifestation of the implicit in tumor. around primary intracranial and spinal tumours, such as craniopharyngioma, meningioma, and schwannoma, have a disposition to turn in peculiar parts of the cranial pit, thereby bring forthing extremely characteristic neurologic syndromes. 29 As for nosologies, the location ( supra vs. infratentorial and intraaxial vs. extraaxial ) every bit cracking as the age conclave ( child vs. grownup ) are of bit appraisal characteristics. For case supratentorial tumours normally present with focal neurologic shortages, concern or ictus whereas infratentorial tumours preponderantly present with elevated ICP ( hydrocephaly and quadth ventricle compression ) , taking to sickness, purification or recur vision, seldom doing ictuss. 30 Therefore following to the initial clinical appraisal, imagination has become an of bit diagnostic tool.This short inspection of the forefront patho instruments, underlying cerebrovascular or intracranial neoplastic diseases, shows clearly the meaningance of distinguishing between upsets impacting the supratentorial and infratentorial encephalon parts. Because of the different clinical presentations and symptoms an d the subsequent difference in diagnostic and therapy it becomes constantly of present moment to concentrate in the following plane section on the anatomical reference divisions and map every bit veracious as blood supply of each part individually. We will besides go the major associated cerebrovascular and neoplastic pathologies in order to better understand the conditional relation our survey.Supratentorial BrainThe cerebrum is continued by the aggregate and anterior pit. The two intellectual hemispheres constitute the largest division of the encephalon. The specialise maps of a cortical part lift from the interplay between corticocortical systems and subcortical systems and a rudimentary intracortical processing faculty. 33 Regions of the cerebral mantle are somaified in several ways 34 By the regularity of information processed ( e.g. , sensory, tug and associational )By anatomical stain ( frontlet, worldly, parietal, and occipital )By the geometrical relatio nship between cell types in the major cortical bedsWe will take the intellectual cerebral mantle by anatomical place ( frontage, lay, parietal and occipital ) and for descriptive intents we will shortly exemplify the mind implicit in syndromes. But we will frontmost hold a expression at two usable parts videlicet the limbic system and the interbrain.Limbic SystemThe limbic system encompasses the hippocampal formation, amygdaloid composite, septum, olfactive core, and selected karyon of the interbrain, and is the beginning of complex worked up and motivational maps, every bit good as abundant term shop and smell. It forms the interior confines line of the cerebral mantle. 34 The hippocampus, for case, is valuable to the formation of recent memory, since this map is alienated in patients with extended bilateral harm to the hippocampus. 34 DiencephalonThe interbrain encompasses the thalamus and hypothalamus. The core cells of the thalamus are arranged into distinguisha ble bunchs, or nuclei. These nuclei act as relays between the incoming inward-developing tracts and the cerebral mantle, between the distinct parts of the thalamus and the hypothalamus, and between the elemental ganglia and the association parts of the intellectual cerebral mantle. The thalamic karyon and the basal ganglia besides exert regulative take care over splanchnic maps aphagia ( unfitness to get down ) and adipsia ( absence of thirst ) , every bit good as oecumenical sensory disregard.The basal ganglia, for case, organize an indispensable regulative section of the extrapyramidal repel system. detriment to the extrapyramidal causes upsets characterized by nonvoluntary exploits, such as the shudders and rigidness of Parkinson s disease or the unmanageable limb motions of Huntington s chorea. Similarly, the hypothalamus is the head integrating part for the full autonomic nervous system and regulates organic structure temperature, H2O balance, intermediary metamorphos is, blood force per unit area, sexual and circadian rhythms, favoritism of the anterior pituitary, slumber, and emotion. 34 Cerebral CortexBrodmann distinguished 47 different functional zones of intellectual cerebral mantle, and although it is referred to with much contention and the informations were neer published, his system is still in usage today. In general one must chance the cerebral mantle as a heterogenous compound of many inter cogitate anatomic systems, Certain parts of the cerebrum are committed to particular perceptual, ride, sensory, mnemonic, and lingual activities. 29 For case the integrating of cortical with subcortical constructions is reflected in commanded motions. A simple motion of the manus requires activation of the pre force back cerebral mantle, which undertakings to the mark body and cerebellum and back to the motor cerebral mantle via a complex thalamic circuitry before the direct and indirect corticospinal tracts can trip certain combinations of s pinal motor inwardness cells. 29 Thus interregional continuatives of the cerebrum are compulsory for all natural sensorimotor maps.In the comparable manner, their devastation disinhibits or releases other countries. For case parietal lesions result in complex turning away motions to contactual stimulation. 29 lastly the intellectual cerebral mantles besides provide supervisory integrating of the autonomic nervous system and combine embodied and vegetal maps, including those of the cardiovascular and GI systems. 34 Because of this interregional connexion damage of one part whitethorn ensue in the go bad of other parts as seen in patients with shot, tumour or devolution.Here is a speedy overview of the major maps of the cerebrum 35 actThe cerebrum directs the witting or voluntary motor maps of the organic structure. These maps originate within the primary motor cerebral mantle and other frontal lobe motor countries where actions are planned.receptive processingThe pri mary inward-moving countries of the intellectual cerebral mantle receive and procedure optical, audile, somatosensory, gustative, and olfactive information. Together with association cortical countries, these encephalon parts synthesize sensory(a) information into our perceptual experiences of the universe.SmellThe olfactive sensory system is alone in the horse sense that nerve cells in the olfactory bulb send their axons straight to the olfactory cerebral mantle, instead than to the thalamus foremost.Language and communicating grapple and lingual communication are in general attributed to parts of the intellectual cerebral mantle. Motor parts of linguistic communication are attributed to Broca s country within the frontal lobe. Speech comprehension is attributed to Wernicke s country, at the laic-parietal lobe junction.Learning and memory intelligible or declaratory memory formation is attributed to the hippocampus and associated parts of the average blase lobe. Implicit or procedural memory, such as complex motor behaviours, involves the basal ganglia. in the end, by and by this short functional reexamination of the chief intellectual parts and showing the significance of interconnectivity between cortical, subcortical and associational countries, the following subdivision will analyze the map and blood supply of the chief anatomic place ( Fig. 5 ) , videlicet the frontlet, parietal, temporal and occipital lobes.Figure 5 The Brain Separated by Lobeshypertext transpose protocol //www.accessmedicine.com/loadBinary.aspx? take in=ropp9 & A computer computer file ca-ca= % 09ropp9_c022f001.gifBeginning Ropper AH, Samuels MA Adams and Victor s Principles of Neurology, 9e hypertext take protocol //www.accessmedicine.com/content.aspx? aID=3633619Frontal LobeIn short the frontal lobe, regard out in the anterior one-half of the encephalon, is in a general sense committed to the planning, induction, monitoring, and executing of all intellectual act ivity. Harmonizing to Luria et Al. this was competently summarized by as nonrandom behaviour. 36 Consequently, lesions of the frontal lobes consequence in damage of back-to-back planning, an unfitness to keep consecutive relationships of events, and to befuddle easy from one mental activity to another. In the emotional domain, frontal lobe lesions may do anhedonia 1 , apathy 2 , and firing of self-denial, disinhibited societal behaviour. 29 For descriptive intents, the clinical effects of frontal lobe lesions can be grouped under the following(prenominal) forks 29 Motor abnormalcies related to the motor cerebral mantleAddress and linguistic communication upsets related to the paramount frontal lobeIncontinence of vesica and intestineDamage of capacity for purposive keep up mental activityInability to switch from one line of idea or action to anotherAkinesis 3 and neediness of enterprise and spontaneousnessChanges in personality, specially in temper and self-denial typ ical abnormalcy of paceIn decision, it seems clear, that the frontal lobe is at the intersection of all motor activities. This applies non merely to willed motion but to all postural reactions and accustomed activity every bit good.Blood summateBlood is supplied by the anterior intellectual arteria ( ACA ) and to the deep parts by the superordinate division of the in-between intellectual arteria ( MCA ) . The implicit in deep white affair is supplied by little subtle arterias, called lenticulostriate vass that originate straight from the MCA. 29 Temporal LobeThe symptoms that machinate as a effect of disease of the temporal lobes may be divided into 29 Disorders of the particular sensesOcular temporal lobe abnormalcies may falsify eye flip-flop perceptual experience seen objects may face excessively big ( macropsia ) or little ( micropsia ) optic hallucinations of complex signifier, including 1s of the patient himself ( autoscopy )Auditory Wernicke s aphasia 4 , ensue i n agnosias ( inability to acknowledge sounds, different musical notes or words ) and audile verbal agnosia ( failure in decrypting the acoustic signals of address and change overing them into apprehensible words ) , semblances and hallucinationsOlfactory and gustatory perturbation of odor and gustatory senseTime perceptual experience state of confusionMemory amnestic syndrome sense & A behaviour cardinal function of the temporal lobe, notably its hippocampal and limbic parts, consequence in lost natural emotional reactions such as fright and are of cardinal merchandiseance for linguistic communication, memory and learning maps.Blood SupplyThe lacking(p) subdivision of the in-between intellectual arteria and the temporal subdivision of the PCA supplies blood to the temporal lobe ( median and humble facets, including the hippocampus ) . 29 Parietal LobeLesions in the parietal lobe show a scope of assorted clinical phenomena. The kernel job represents agnosia, associated wit h complex behavioural alterations. In this context the term agnosia becomes synonym for a loss of more complex incorporate maps and mental symbolisms. These syndromes include 29 mischief of the ability to cipherLoss to distinguish left from rightLoss to farm up wordsApraxia 5 Blood SupplyThe parietal lobe is supplied by the MCA, the low-level and top-notch divisions providing the inferior and master lobules, severally. 29 Occipital LobeThe most familiar clinical abnormalcy ensuing from a lesion of one occipital lobe is a contralateral homonymic hemianopsia. Bilateral lesions of the occipital poles, as in intercalation of the PCAs, consequence in bilateral hemianopsia and cortical sightlessness. Many of the complex behavioural defects continueing ocular map are caused by lesions at the junctions of the occipital and parietal or temporal lobes. Damage to the occipital lobe my consequence in assorted defects including 29 Ocular anosognosia ( Anton Syndrome ) defending tea m of sightlessness by a patient who evidently, can non see or the patient is able to see little objects but claims to be unsightedOcular semblances ( metamorphopsias ) Distortions of signifier, size, motion, or colourOcular hallucinations They may be simple or complex, and both types have sensory every bit good as cognitive facets, e.g. flashes of visible radiation, colourss, aglow(predicate) charges, stars, five-fold visible radiations ( like tapers ) , and geometric signifiers ( circles, squares, and hexagons ) . They may be stationary or travelling ( zigzag, oscillations, quivers, or pulsings ) .Agnosia e.g. ocular simultanagnosia, which describes an inability to hold on the sense of the multiple constituents of a entire ocular characterisation despite maintained ability to place single inside informations.Balint s Syndrome 27 it involves shortages in the orderly visuomotor scanning of the environs ( oculomotor apraxia ) and in accurate manual of arms making toward ocular marks ( ocular ataxy ) . The 3rd and most hammy constituent is known as simultanagnosia and reflects an inability to incorporate ocular information in the centre of regard with more skirting(prenominal) information. The patient with simultanagnosia misses the wood for the trees. Blood SupplyThe occipital lobes are supplied about only when by the PCAs and their subdivisions. A little country of the occipital pole receives blood supply from the inferior division of the MCA. 29 In the succeeding(prenominal) subdivision we will look at the supratentorial diseases of our patients with particular focal floor on the tumour patients, and have a speedy expression at get across cerebellar diaschisis and encephalocele.Supratentorial TumorsAs seen in the old subdivision, a broad assortment of pathomechanisms affect the tumorgenesis in the encephalon. Primary benign and malignant tumours deck out from the assorted elements of the CNS and tumours metastasize to the CNS from many primary beginnings. In the undermentioned subdivision we will look at the chief survey related malignances.Glial TumorsGlial cells provide the anatomic and physiologic support for nerve cells and their procedures in the encephalon. The several types of glial cells give rise to distinct primary CNS tumor. We will see the astrocytoma and the oligodendroglioma.AstrocytomasAstrocytoma is the most common primary CNS tumor. 37 The term glioma is oft used to mention to astrocytomas specifically, excepting other glial tumours. Here are the chief features 37 Rating I and II are low-grade astrocytoma, triplet anaplastic astrocytoma, and IV glioblastoma multiforme ( GBM )Histological characteristics associated with class III and II include hypercellularity, atomic atypia, and endovascular hyperplasiaInvasiveness aggressive infiltrates adjacent encephalon threadNecrosis present merely with GBMs functional therapy gross entire resection is state-of-the-art nevertheless motor cerebral mantle, l inguistic communication Centres, deep or midline constructions, or brain-stem location make this unworkable without lay waste toing neurologic shortage irradiation therapy neoadjuvant radiation therapy improves endurance for all classsChemotherapy may be considered, but is of expressage efficaciousness so farOligodendrogliomaOligodendroglioma histories for about 10 % of gliomas. Here are the chief features 37 Present frequently with ictussCalcifications and bleeding on CT or MR imaging suggest the diagnosingRating I to IV class indicates forecastPrognosis is better overall than for astrocytomas average endurance ranges from 2 to 7 old ages for highest and lowest class tumours, severallySurgical therapy aggressive resection improves selectionChemotherpay many patients are antiphonal to chemotherapyRadiation therapy has non been clearly shown to protract enduranceMetastatic TumorsDrawn-out malignant neoplastic disease patient endurance and change CNS imagination have change mag nitude the likeliness of naming intellectual metastases. The beginnings of most intellectual metastases are ( in change magnitude frequence ) 37 LungBreastKidneyGI moment of trim backMelanomaMain transit way of metastatic cells to the cerebrum is hematogenously. Other common locations are the cerebellum and the meninxs. Metastasiss are frequently really good circumscribed, unit of ammunition, and multiple.Pituitary AdenomaPituitary adenomas arise from the anterior pituitary secretory organ ( anterior pituitary ) . Pituitary tumours may be 37 Functional loose endocrinologically active compounds at diseased degrees diagnosed when the lesion is little due to endocrine disfunctionNon-functional suppress nil or inactive compounds diagnosed when the lesion is big doing ocular field shortages or panhypopituitarism diagnostic pituitary tumours should be surgically removed, chiefly through the nose via the transsphenoidal attack. However, prolactin-secreting tumours ( prolactinomas ) normally decoct with dopaminergic therapy entirely.Particular ConsiderationsCrossed cerebellar DiaschisisHarmonizing to Feeney et Al. diaschisis signifies reduced partial encephalon map due to the break at a distant site of an sensory(prenominal) tract. 38 This afferent nerve tract physiologically supplies background excitement to nerve cells, maintaining them in activity and therefore forestalling devolution of the latter. Crossed intellectual cerebellar diaschisis ( CCD ) was counterbalance described by Baron et Al. 39 As each cerebellar hemisphere is closely connected to the contralateral intellectual cerebral mantle, hurt ( e.g. shot, tumour, etc. ) to the supratentorial portion of the encephalon would impact the cerebellum. Basically, CCD is a province of cerebellar hypometabolism ( reduced blood flow and oxygen consumption ) due to the functional disjunction of the contralateral intellectual hemispheres as stated by Tien and Ashdown. 40 It is of spell to see this f act when analysing the cerebellum with patients enduring from supratentorial diseases such as cerebrovascular diseases ( aneurisms, stroke, arterio-venous deformities ) or tumours as it is in our survey.EncephalocelesHernia of encephalon encased in meninxs through the skull that forms an intracranial mass is referred to as encephalocele. Hernia of meninxs without encephalon tissue is referred to as a meningocele. More seldom, the tissue protrudes through the skull base into the fistulous witherss. Treatment involves deletion of the herniated tissue and closing of the defect. Most patients with encephaloceles and meningoceles have im opposite cognitive development. Patients with greater sums of herniated nervous tissue tend to hold more terrible cognitive shortages. 37 For better rationality the rational of our survey it is of conditional relation to hold a draft expression at the major back pit complaints. This subdivision will first analyze the chief anatomic and physiologi cal characteristics and so turn to the most of outcome cerebrovascular diseases in the brain-stem and cerebellum including the chief shot syndromes ( ischaemic and haemorrhagic ) . After that we will look at the most common posterior pit associated tumours.Infratentorial BrainThe brain-stem and cerebellum are lodged by the posterior pit. From all pit mentioned front this one is the largest and deepest of the tierce ( Fig. 6 ) . It is delineate by following anatomical constructions 24 The hiatuss magnum forms the cardinal portion of the floor and transmits the medullae oblongata the go uping spinal parts of the adjunct nervousnesss the two vertebral arterias ( vas ) and the anterior and posterior spinal arteriasThe hypoglossal communication channel is situated above the anterolateral boundary of the hiatuss magnum and transmits the cheek hypoglosus spunk and emissary venasBehind the hiatuss magnum are the inferior occipital foss? , which support the hemispheres of th e cerebellumThe jugular hiatuss is situated at that place. The anterior part transmits the inferior petrosal fistula and the sigmoid fistula fall ining to organize each internal jugular vena. The posterior part transmits the cross(prenominal) fistula and some meningeal subdivisions from the occipital and go uping pharyngeal arterias. The intermediate part transmits the glossopharyngeal ( IX ) the pneumogastric ( X ) and the accoutrement ( XI ) cranial nervousnesssFinally the internal acoustic meatus transmits the facial and vestibulocochlearA nervousnesss and the internal auditory arteria.Figure 6 The floor of the Skull upper surfaceBeginning hypertext transfer protocol //www.bartleby.com/107/47.htmlWe will hold a closer expression at the larger anatomical divisions and supply a brief overview of encephalon maps and the most of import pathological changes to our survey.brain stemThe brain-stem is the portion of the CNS located between the spinal cord and the prosencephalon. It consists, from cranial to caudal, of the mesencephalon ( midbrain ) , Ponss ( metencephalon ) , and medulla oblongata ( myelencephalon ) . The three internal longitudinal divisions of the brain-stem are the tectum ( chiefly in the mesencephalon ) , tegmentum, and beachhead ( see Fig. 7 ) . The master part of the rhomboid pit ( which forms the floor of the 4th ventricle ) extends over the Ponss, whereas the inferior part covers the unfastened part of the myelin. Three paired cerebellar peduncles ( inferior, in-between, and overlord ) signifier connexions with the cerebellum. Finally the dorsal facet of the myelin shows four knolls the two superior and the two inferior colliculi, jointly called the principal quadrigemina.These constructions enable the connexion between the intellectual hemispheres and thalamus-hypothalamus to the spinal cord, associating, via the change formation ( part of colour in affair in the tegmentum ) , off-base sensory and motor events with highe r degrees of nervous integrating. These span parts of the CNS are an highly of import portion of the encephalon, as they contain most of the karyon of the cranial nervousnesss, every bit good as the major influx and outflow gear up of bucks from the cerebral mantles and spinal cord. 23, 34 These includeThe corticospinal theme of demeanThe major motor piece of consumeThe posterior column- median fillet tractThe spinothalamic piece of vote outsThe brain-stem may functionally hence be divided into three chief centres, which are far from reciprocally sole 23, 34 Conduit mapsThe lone manner for go uping piece of reasons to make the thalamus or cerebellum ( or for go piece of lands to make the spinal cord ) is through the brain-stem. Many of these piece of lands, nevertheless, are non straight-through personal businesss, and relay karyon in the brain-stem are often involved.Integrative mapsThe points of cardinal integrating for coordination of indispensable automatic Acts of the Apostless, such as swallowing and emesis, and those that involve the cardiovascular and respiratory systems these countries besides include the primary receptive parts for most splanchnic afferent inward-moving information. The change energizing system is indispensable for the order of slumber, wakefulness, and degree of bestir, every bit good as for coordination of oculus motions.Cranial nervus mapThe karyon of cranial nervousnesss III through XII, except of the olfactory and ocular nervousnesss that project straight to the cerebrum and interbrain, severally, are besides located within the brain-stem. These nervousnesss relay the motor, sensory, and particular sense maps of the oculus, face, oral cavity, and pharynx.Figure 7 Drawing of the Divisions of the Brainstem midsagittal planehypertext transfer protocol //www.accessmedicine.com/loadBinary.aspx? name=waxm & A filename= % 09waxm_c007f004.gifBeginning Waxman SG clinical Neuroanatomy, 26e hypertext transfer protocol //www.accessmedicine.com/content.aspx? aID=5273762Blood SupplyHere we look at the chief arterial short pantss providing the brain-stem, viz. the VA, the BA and the PCA ( see Fig. 8 ) .The Vertebral ArteryThe vas are the main arterias of the myelin and the posterior inferior portion of the cerebellar hemisphere. The long circumferential subdivisions originating from the VAs and BAs are the posterior inferior cerebellar ( pica ) , the anterior inferior cerebellar ( AICA ) , and the superior cerebellar arterias ( SCA ) and several smaller subdivisions, such as the pontine and internal auditory arterias. Short subdivisions originating from the long circumferential arterias penetrate the ventral brain-stem to provide the brain-stem motor tracts. 26 The VAs are most frequently occluded by atherothrombosis in their intracranial part. Because the VAs have a long extracranial class and base on balls through the cross procedures of C6 to C1 vertebrae before come ining the cranial pit, one might anticipate them to be capable to trauma, spondylotic compaction, and a assortment of other vertebral diseases. However arterial dissection is the most common other cause after vascular occlusion. 29 The Basilar ArteryThe BA normally arises from the junction of the mated VAs, though in some instances merely a individual VA is present. The BA courses over the ventral surface of the brain-stem to end at the degree of the mesencephalon, where it bifurcates to organize the PCAs. 26 The subdivisions can be divided as follows 29 The paramedian subdivisions providing the PonssThe short circumferential providing the sideways two-thirds of the Ponss and the center and superior cerebellar pedunclesThe long circumferential subdivisions ( SCA and AICA ) , which run laterally around the Ponss to make the cerebellar hemispheresThe paramedian interpeduncular subdivisions at the bifurcation of the BA and beginnings of the PCAs providing the high mesencephalon and median subthalamic partsB A syndromes normally produce coma by impairing blood flow to the brain-stem reticular energizing system. Thrombosis normally affects the mid-portion, and embolic occlusion the top of the basilar arteria. Virtually all patients present with some change of consciousness, and 50 % of patients are comatose at presentation with focal marks nowadays from the beginning. 26 Figure 8 Chief Arteries of the Brainstem ventral positionarteries3.gifBeginning Waxman SG clinical Neuroanatomy, 26e hypertext transfer protocol //www.accessmedicine.com/content.aspx? aID=5272329.The back end Cerebral ArteryThe mated PCAs arise from the tip of the basilar arteria and provide the occipital intellectual cerebral mantle, median temporal lobes, thalamus, and rostral mesencephalon. Emboli in the BA tend to lodge at its vertex, where they can obstruct one or both PCAs. 26 Occlusion of the PCA produces a greater assortment of clinical effects than occlusion of any other arteria because both the upper brain- stem, which is move with of import constructions and the inferomedial parts of the temporal and occipital lobes lie within its supply. The site of the occlusion will find the location and extent of the ensuing infarct. 29 The collaterals of the chief arterial short pantss form four arterial groups ( anteromedial, anterolateral, sidelong, and posterior ) , which supply the brain-stem structures harmonizing to their point of incursion into the parenchyma. This categorization was devised by the anatomical work of Duvernoy ( 1999 ) . At each degree of the brain-stem, the beginning of these groups varies. The specific blood supply will be examined for each anatomical construction individually in the undermentioned subdivisions. 41, 42 In the following subdivision we will entirely concentrate on the cerebrovascular syndromes and neoplastic diseases impacting the posterior pit constructions. Therefore any syndrome resulting from the occlusion of the posterior intellectual arteria, altho ugh portion of the posterior circulation will non be dealt with as some syndromes affect the supratentorial portion of the encephalon ( thalamic hurting syndrome, Balint s syndrome, etca ) resting hence outside the range of this aphoristic reappraisal. incandescent lamp OblongataThe myelin oblongata is the portion of the brain-stem that connects with the spinal cord. The medullary countries for the autonomic go steady of the circulation, bosom, and lungs are called the vital centres because harm to them is normally fatal. The afferent theatrical roles to these centres originate in a figure of cases in specialized splanchnic sense organs. The specialised receptors include non merely those of the carotid and aortic fistulas and organic structures but besides receptor cells that are located in the myelin itself. The motor solutions are graded and adjusted and include bodily every bit good as splanchnic constituents. Swallowing, coughing, sneezing, gagging, and purging are besides automatic responses merged in the myelin oblongata. 23, 24, 34 The myelin can be divided into three parts 23, 24, 34 Caudal or closed part incorporating a cardinal canal uninterrupted with that of the spinal cordRostral or unfastened part, in which the cardinal canal expands as the 4th ventricleApex of the V-shaped caudal 4th ventricle, where it narrows into the cardinal canal, is called the obex.Further it is of import to separate the tracts that run through the myelin 23, 24, 34 wage increase piece of landsThe median fillet carries centripetal information from the gracile and cuneate karyons to the thalamus for all right touch, quiver esthesis and proprioception.The spinoreticular responsible for general reaction related to trouble such as waking up, affectional and vegetive maps.The ventral spinocerebellar tract conveys proprioceptive information from the organic structure to the cerebellum.The spinothalamic piece of land a centripetal tract arising in the spinal cord. It t ransmits information to the thalamus about hurting, temperature, itching and petroleum touch.Descending piece of landsThe corticospinal piece of land in the pyramid begins to cover at the passage between myelin and spinal cord. It largely contains motor axons. It really consists of two separate piece of lands in the spinal cord the sidelong corticospinal piece of land and the median corticospinal piece of landThe falling spinal piece of land of the trigeminal nervus has its cell organic structures in the trigeminal ganglion. The fibres of the piece of land convey hurting, temperature, and crude touch esthesissThe median longitudinal fiber plenty is an of import tract involved with control of regard and caput motionsThe tectospinal piece of land relays urges commanding cervix and bole motions in response to ocular stimulationBlood SupplyThe arterial supply of the myelin comes from the VAs, the PICA and the anterior and posterior spinal arterias ( Fig. 9 ) . Follows the division by arterial groups 42 The anteromedial group arises from the anterior spinal arteria or the anterior spinal and vertebral arteriasThe anterolateral group arises from the anterior spinal and vertebral arterias, anterior spinal and PICA or anterior spinal and VAsThe sidelong group derives from the PICA or the VAThe posterior group stems from the posterior spinal arteria or the PICAFigure 9 Arterial Supply of the Medullahypertext transfer protocol //www.accessmedicine.com/loadBinary.aspx? name=simo7 & A filename= % 09simo7_c009f012d.gifBeginning Simon RP, Greenberg DA, Aminoff MJ Clinical Neurology, 7e hypertext transfer protocol //www.accessmedicine.com/content.aspx? aID=5151404.Medullary InfarctsThese can be divided into sidelong and median medullary infarcts and a combination of both, hemimedullary infarct ( Fig. 10 ) .Lateral medullary infarctHarmonizing to Norrving et Al. the medullary infarct syndrome, is one of the most common brain-stem infarcts and histories for approximately 2 % of all admittances for acute shot. 43 The characteristic syndrome with giddiness is due to the occlusion of the VA barricading the sidelong myelin and inferior cerebellum ( PICA ) blood supply. It is besides called Wallenber syndrome, named after the doctor who foremost described it in 1895. It is about ever caused by infarction, with merely a little figure of instances being the consequence of bleeding, demyelination, or tumour. 29, 44 As stated by Currier et al. , symptoms typically consist of dizziness, sickness, purging, dysphagia, gruffness, and nystagmus in add-on to ipsilateral Horner syndrome ( ptosis, meiosis, enophthalmia, and loss of facial perspiration ) , ipsilateral limb ataxy, and damage of all centripetal modes over the face ever touching hurting and temperature esthesis. 45 Further the corneal physiological reaction is frequently absent. silliness is common and is caused by a lesion in the vestibular karyon or their connexions. 29, 44 Medial medullary inf arctHarmonizing to Vuilleumier et al. , Dejerine syndrome is comparatively rare, looking in one of 28 medullary infarcts in one series. The author sees the cause of the infarct frequently in the atherothrombosis of the VA or the anterior spinal arteria the most common symptoms include contralateral hemiparesis ( seldom ipsilateral ) and a hemisensory shortage saving the face ipsilateral linguistic paresis or gawky lingua motions may on occasion be observed. 46 If it is dark, it is besides known as saltation nervus hypoglosus unilateral paralysis, depicting a province where the cranial nervus impuissance is on the same side as the lesion, but the organic structure palsy is on the contralateral side. 29 Figure 10 Lateral Medullary Syndrome and vary Hypoglossal HemiplegialoadBinary2.gifBeginning Waxman SG Clinical Neuroanatomy, 26e hypertext transfer protocol //www.accessmedicine.com/content.aspx? aID=5272329.Hemimedullary infarctHemimedullary infarct, besides called Reinhold s syndrome, is rare. The authoritative clinical image of the hemimedullary syndrome is a combination of the symptoms of sidelong and median medullary infarcts. When the motor shortage is ipsilateral to the infarction, it may propose that dissection of the VA is the mechanism of the shot. In fact it includes all symptoms of Wallenberg s syndrome in add-on to contralateral hemiparesis. 47 Other syndromes exist with many of the same characteristics, such as the AICA occlusion taking to infarction of the sidelong part of the caudal Ponss and the syndrome of sidelong rostral pontine infarction from SCA occlusion. But inside informations on these would excel the range of this brief overviewMidbrainThis is the part of the encephalon between the hindbrain and the interbrain the rostral portion of the brain-stem. Its dorsal part is the tectum and its ventral part is the tegmentum ( including reticulate formation ) . The mesencephalon is the short, constricted part which connects the Ponss and cerebellum with the thalamencephalon and intellectual hemispheres. It contains cranial nervousnesss that stimulate maps such as vision ( lens form and scholarly person diameter ) and muscles commanding oculus motion. besides maps such as hearing, organic structure motion and physiological reactions are being generated. Further the dopaminergic mesencephalon nerve cells are involved in many of import encephalon maps including affectional and cognitive undertakings. The anterior portion has the intellectual peduncle, which is a massive package of axons going from the intellectual cerebral mantle through the brain-stem transporting of import information for voluntary motor map. 23, 24, 34 The mesencephalon can be divided into 23, 24, 34 FootingIt is composed of a brace of cylindrical organic structures, the crus cerebri or intellectual peduncles, a monolithic fibre package that includes corticospinal, corticobulbar, and corticopontine tracts. Each peduncle consists of a dors al and a ventral portion, separated by a profoundly pigmented lamina of grayness substance, termed the substantia nigger. The substantia nigger ( whose cells contain neuromelanin ) receives afferent fibres from the intellectual cerebral mantle and the striate body and sends dopaminergic motorial fibres to the striate body. The substantia nigger plays a cardinal function in wages, addiction and motion control.TegmentumIt contains all the go uping piece of lands from the spinal cord or sink brain-stem and many of the falling systems. A big ruddy karyon receives cover motorial fibres from the cerebellum and sends fibres to the thalamus and the contralateral spinal cord via the rubrospinal piece of land. The ruddy karyon is an of import constituent of motor coordination. Close to the periventricular grey affair lie the bilateral venue coeruleus karyon. Nerve cells in these karyons contain noradrenaline and undertaking widely to the cerebral mantle, hippocampus, thalamus, mesencepha lon, cerebellum, Ponss, myelin, and spinal cord. These nerve cells regulate the sleep-wake rhythm and control arousal they may besides influence the sensitiveness of centripetal karyon.TectumIt consists of four round distinctions, named the principal quadrigemina, who are arranged in braces ( superior and inferior colliculi ) . These paired rounded puffinesss have different maps. The superior colliculi contain nerve cells that receive stimulation from the retina and the ocular cerebral mantle and participates in a assortment of optic physiological reactions, peculiarly the trailing of objects in the ocular field. The inferior colliculi are involved in auditory physiological reactions and in finding the side on which a sound originates. The colliculi contribute to the formation of the crossed tectospinal piece of lands, which are involved in blinking(a) and head-turning physiological reactions after sudden sounds or ocular images.Periaqueductal Gray MatterIt contains falling auton omic piece of lands every bit good as endorphin-producing cells that suppress hurting.Blood SupplyFive arterial short pantss supply the arterial mesencephalon groups, from underside to exceed, SCA ( chiefly the median subdivision ) , the collicular arteria, the posteromedial choroidal arteria, PCA ( in-between rami of the interpeduncular arterias ) , and the anterior choroidal arteria ( Fig. 11 ) . Followng arterial groups can be identified 23, 42 The anteromedial group arises from the PCAThe anterolateral group arises from the collicular and posteromedial choroidal arterias or the collicular, posteromedial, and anterior choroidal arteriasThe sidelong group arises from the collicular arteria or the collicular, posteromedial choroidal, and PCAs.The posterior group arises from the SCA and collicular arterias or the collicular and posteromedial choroidal arteriasFigure 11 Arterial Supply of the Midbrainhypertext transfer protocol //www.accessmedicine.com/loadBinary.aspx? name=simo7 & A filename= % 09simo7_c009f012b.gifBeginning Simon RP, Greenberg DA, Aminoff MJ Clinical Neurology, 7e hypertext transfer protocol //www.accessmedicine.com/content.aspx? aID=5151404.Midbrain InfarctsThese tarradiddle for 8 % of all infarcts in the posterior circulation. BA disease ( 27 % ) , cardio-embolism ( 23 % ) , and small-artery disease ( 23 % ) were found to be every bit common causes in a survey performed by Bogousslavsky et Al. 48 Most infarcts are localized in the in-between portion of the mesencephalon, and are characterized by atomic ( bilateral ptosis, bilateral superior rectus failing, or bilateral mydriasis ) or peripheral 3rd nervus engagement ( one-sided adduction/upward/ downward(prenominal) paralysis with ptosis and mydriasis ) , with or without hemiparesis. 29 Infarcts in the upper or lower mesencephalon can be separate harmonizing to their chief characteristics third-nerve paralysis have with contralateral unilateral paralysis ( weber syndrome ) , contral ateral ataxic shudder ( Benedikt syndrome see Fig. 12 ) , or ataxy and hemiparesis ( Claude syndrome ) . 29 With occlusions near the beginning of the PCA at the degree of the mesencephalon, optic abnormalcies can include vertical regard paralysis, third cranial nerve ( III ) nervus paralysis, internuclear ophthalmoplegia, and perpendicular reorient divergence of the eyes, or coma. 44 Figure 12 Benedikt Syndromehypertext transfer protocol //www.accessmedicine.com/loadBinary.aspx? name=simo7 & A filename= % 09simo7_c003f012.gifBeginning Simon RP, Greenberg DA, Aminoff MJ Clinical Neurology, 7e hypertext transfer protocol //www.accessmedicine.com/content.aspx? aID=5151404.Midbrain HemorrhageThalamic bleedings cause several typical optic perturbations. These include 27 Deviation of the eyes downward and inward so that they appear to be looking at the olfactory organUnequal students with absence of light reactionSkew divergence with the oculus opposite the bleeding displaced down ward and mediallyipsilateral Horner s syndromeAbsence of convergence paralysis of perpendicular regardRetraction nystagmusPatients may subsequently develop a chronic, contralateral hurting syndrome ( e.g- Dejerine-Roussy syndrome ) .PonsThe Ponss is the part of the encephalon prevarication above the myelin oblongata and below the cerebellum and the pit of the 4th ventricle. The Ponss is a wide, horseshoe-shaped mass of transverse nervus fibres that connect the myelin with the cerebellum. It is besides the point of beginning or exit for four of the cranial nervousnesss ( karyon of the trigeminal, abducents, facial, and acoustic nervousnesss ) that transfer centripetal information and motor urges to and from the facial part and the encephalon. The Ponss besides serves as a tract for nervus fibres linking the intellectual cerebral mantle with the cerebellum. The Ponss controls rousing and regulates respiration. It besides plays a function in slumber. 23, 24, 34 The Ponss can be div ided into a ventral and dorsal portion and the in-between cerebellar peduncles 23, 24, 34 Ventral or anterior surface ( Basis Pontis )It is situated along the midplane of the Ponss and portion of the myelin where the rhaphe karyon lies. Serotonin-containing nerve cells in these karyons project widely to the cerebral mantle and hippocampus, basal ganglia, thalamus, cerebellum, and spinal cord. These cells are of import in commanding the degree of rousing and modulate the sleep-wake rhythm. They besides modulate centripetal input, peculiarly for hurting.Dorsal or posterior surface ( Tegmentum )The tegmentum of the Ponss is more complex than the base. This dorsal tegmental part is for most a lengthiness of the reticulate formation of the myelin oblongata, but consists besides of transverse and longitudinal fibres and contains of import grey karyon ( e.g. the karyon of nervus VI and the karyon of nervus seven-spot ) . The upper half of the Ponss harbors the chief centripetal karyon o f nervus V. The cardinal tegmental piece of land contains falling fibres from the mesencephalon to the inferior olivary karyon and go uping fibres that run from the brain-stem reticulate formation to the thalamus. The tectospinal piece of land and the median longitudinal fiber bundle are extra constituents of the pontine tegmentum.Middle Cerebellar PeduncleIt is the largest of the three cerebellar peduncles. It contains fibres that arise from the contralateral footing pontis and terminal in the cerebellar hemisphere. Further you besides find audile tracts and the trigeminal system ( all right touch, hurting and temperature ) .Blood supplyDifferent arterial short pantss supply blood to the Ponss, including the VAs, AICA, SCA, and BA ( Fig. 13 ) . But it is chiefly supplied by obscure paramedian and circumferential subdivisions of the BA. Following arterial groups can be identified 23, 42 The anteromedial group and anterolateral group arises from the pontineThe sidelong group arises from the VA and AICA ( superior and posterior rami of the sidelong medullary pit ) , the pontine arterias, or the SCAThe buttocks group merely exists in the upper portion of the Ponss and arises from the medial and sidelong subdivisions of the SCAFigure 13 Arterial Supply of the Ponshypertext transfer protocol //www.accessmedicine.com/loadBinary.aspx? name=simo7 & A filename= % 09simo7_c009f012c.gifBeginning Simon RP, Greenberg DA, Aminoff MJ Clinical Neurology, 7e hypertext transfer protocol //www.accessmedicine.com/content.aspx? aID=5151404.Pontine infarctsIn a survey performed by Bogousslavsky, pontine infarcts accounted for 15 % of the infarcts in the posterior circulation. Further, BA subdivision disease was the most common cause of shot ( 44 % ) and was associated with big ventral infarcts with terrible clinical characteristics. 48 Small arteria disease ( 25 % ) was normally associated with little ventral or tegmental infarcts and quickly bettering lacunar syndromes. 49 Pontine infarcts are classified into four chief groups 44 Ventromedial pontine infarcts associated with subside to terrible hemiparesis, either pure motor hemiparesis or accompanied by ataxic hemiparesis.Ventrolateral infarcts frequently present as a mild hemiparesis, sometimes associated with atactic hemiparesis or pure motor hemiparesis. Some patients may demo mild marks of tegmental engagement, such as optic abnormalcies, dizziness, and centripetal loss ( sensorimotor shot ) .Tegmental pontine infarcts they frequently present as dizziness, double vision, oculus motion perturbations, cranial nervus paralysiss, truncal and appendages centripetal loss, and mild motor shortages.Bilateral ventrotegmental infarcts they are associated with acute pseudobulbar paralysis and uni- or bilateral sensorimotor disfunction. Bilateral big ventral infarcts may do the locked-in syndrome, characterized by tetraplegia, facial diplegia, cacophonic paralysis, and horizontal regard paralysis with nor mal consciousness, the patient merely being able to pass on utilizing a computer code affecting eye blink and traveling the eyes up and down.Pontine BleedingPontine bleeding is basically restricted to hypertensive patients and is the least common of the hypertensive intracerebral bleedings. The apoplectic oncoming o